FURTHER READINGS

进一步阅读

THESE SUGGESTIONS ARE FOR THOSE INTERESTED IN READING further. Hence, in addition to key books and papers, I have favored references that provide comprehensive listings of the earlier literature. A journal title (in italics) is followed by the volume number, followed after a colon by the first and last page numbers, and then the year of publication in parentheses.

这些建议是给那些有兴趣进一步阅读的人的。因此,除了重要的书籍和论文外,我更喜欢提供早期文献综合列表的参考文献。期刊标题(斜体)后接卷号,冒号后接第一页和最后一页号,然后是括号中的出版年份。

Prologue

开场白

Among references relevant to most chapters of this book is an enormous compendium of human gene frequencies entitled The History and Geography of Human Genes, by L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, and Alberto Piazza (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). This remarkable book approximates a history of everything about everybody, because the authors begin their accounts of each continent with a convenient summary of the continent's geography, ecology, and environment, followed by the prehistory, history, languages, physical anthropology, and culture of its peoples. L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza and Francisco Cavalli-Sforza, The Great Human Diasporas (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1995), covers similar material but is written for the general reader rather than for specialists.

在与本书大部分章节相关的参考文献中,有一本名为《人类基因的历史和地理》的庞大人类基因频率简编,由L.Luca Cavalli Sforza、Paolo Menozzi和Alberto Piazza撰写(普林斯顿:普林斯顿大学出版社,1994年)。这本了不起的书大致描述了每一个人的历史,因为作者在开始描述每一个大陆时,都方便地总结了该大陆的地理、生态和环境,然后是史前史、历史、语言、体质人类学和各民族的文化。五十、 卢卡·卡瓦利·斯福尔扎(Luca Cavalli Sforza)和弗朗西斯科·卡瓦里·斯福尔萨(Francisco Cavalli-Sforza),《伟大的人类散居者》(阅读,马萨诸塞州:Addison-Wesley,1995年),涵盖了类似的材料,但是为普通读者而非专家编写的。

Another convenient source is a series of five volumes entitled The Illustrated History of Humankind, ed. G ran Burenhult (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1993–94). The five individual volumes in this series are entitled, respectively, The First Humans, People of the Stone Age, Old World Civilizations, New World and Pacific Civilizations, and Traditional Peoples Today.

另一个方便的来源是题为《人类历史画报》的五卷丛书,ed.G ran Burenhult(旧金山:哈珀柯林斯出版社,1993-94)。本系列中的五卷分别题为《第一批人类》、《石器时代的人》、《旧世界文明》、《新世界和太平洋文明》以及《今天的传统民族》。

Several series of volumes published by Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, England, various dates) provide histories of particular regions or eras. One series consists of books entitled The Cambridge History of [X], where X is variously Africa, Early Inner Asia, China, India, Iran, Islam, Japan, Latin America, Poland, and Southeast Asia. Another series is The Cambridge Encyclopedia of [X], where X is variously Africa, China, Japan, Latin America and the Caribbean, Russia and the former Soviet Union, Australia, the Middle East and North Africa, and India, Pakistan, and adjacent countries. Still other series include The Cambridge Ancient History, The Cambridge Medieval History, The Cambridge Modern History, The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, and The Cambridge Economic History of India.

剑桥大学出版社(英国剑桥,不同日期)出版的若干系列书籍提供了特定地区或时代的历史。其中一个系列由题为《剑桥历史[X]的书》组成,其中X分别代表非洲、早期内亚、中国、印度、伊朗、伊斯兰教、日本、拉丁美洲、波兰和东南亚。另一个系列是剑桥百科全书[X],其中X分别是非洲、中国、日本、拉丁美洲和加勒比、俄罗斯和前苏联、澳大利亚、中东和北非以及印度、巴基斯坦和邻近国家。还有其他系列包括剑桥古代史、剑桥中世纪史、剑桥现代史、剑桥欧洲经济史和剑桥印度经济史。

Three encyclopedic accounts of the world's languages are Barbara Grimes, Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 13th ed. (Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1996), Merritt Ruhlen, A Guide to the World's Languages, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987), and C. F. Voegelin and F. M. Voegelin, Classification and Index of the World's Languages (New York: Elsevier, 1977).

关于世界语言的三本百科全书分别是芭芭拉·格里姆斯(Barbara Grimes),《民族志:世界语言》,第13版(达拉斯:夏季语言学研究所,1996年),梅里特·鲁伦(Merritt Ruhlen),《世界语言指南》(斯坦福:斯坦福大学出版社,1987年),以及C.F.沃格林和F.M.沃格林,《世界语言分类和索引》(纽约:爱思维尔,1977年)

Among large-scale comparative histories, Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, 12 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1934–54), stands out. An excellent history of Eurasian civilization, especially western Eurasian civilization, is William McNeill, The Rise of the West (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). The same author's A World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), despite its title, also maintains a focus on western Eurasian civilization, as does V. Gordon Childe, What Happened in History, rev. ed. (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1954). Another comparative history with a focus on western Eurasia, C. D. Darlington, The Evolution of Man and Society (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969), is by a biologist who recognizes some of the same links between continental history and domestication that I discuss. Two books by Alfred Crosby are distinguished studies of the European overseas expansion with emphasis on its accompanying plants, animals, and germs: The Columbian Exchange: Biological Consequences of 1492 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1972) and Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Marvin Harris, Cannibals and Kings: The Origins of Cultures (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), and Marshall Sahlins and Elman Service, eds., Evolution and Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960), are comparative histories from the perspective of cultural anthropologists. Ellen Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment (New York: Holt, 1911), is an example of earlier efforts to study geographic influences on human societies. Other important historical studies are listed under further readings for the Epilogue. My book The Third Chimpanzee (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), especially its chapter 14, on the comparative histories of Eurasia and the Americas, provided the starting point for my thinking about the present book.

在大规模的比较历史中,阿诺德·汤因比的历史研究共12卷。(伦敦:牛津大学出版社,1934-54年),这本书脱颖而出。威廉·麦克尼尔(William McNeill)《西方的崛起》(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1991年)是欧亚文明,特别是欧亚西部文明的优秀历史。同一位作者的《世界历史》(纽约:牛津大学出版社,1979年),尽管书名为《世界历史》,但也保持了对欧亚西部文明的关注,正如V.戈登·柴尔德,《历史上发生的事》rev.ed.(巴尔的摩:企鹅图书出版社,1954年)。另一部关注欧亚大陆西部的比较史,C.D.达林顿,《人与社会的进化》(纽约:西蒙和舒斯特,1969年),由一位生物学家撰写,他认识到了我所讨论的大陆史与驯化之间的一些相同联系。阿尔弗雷德·克罗斯比(Alfred Crosby)的两本书是关于欧洲海外扩张的杰出研究,重点是其伴随的植物、动物和细菌:《哥伦布交换:1492年的生物后果》(康涅狄格州韦斯特波特:格林伍德,1972年)和《生态帝国主义:欧洲的生物扩张》,900-1900年(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1986年)。马文·哈里斯(Marvin Harris),《食人族和国王:文化的起源》(纽约:复古图书出版社,1978年),马歇尔·萨林斯(Marshall Sahlins)和埃尔曼·塞维斯(Elman Service)主编,《进化与文化》(安阿伯:密歇根大学出版社,1960年),都是从文化人类学家的角度进行比较的历史。Ellen Semple,《地理环境的影响》(纽约:霍尔特,1911年)是早期研究地理对人类社会影响的一个例子。其他重要的历史研究在结语的进一步阅读下列出。我的书《第三只黑猩猩》(纽约:哈珀柯林斯,1992),特别是其中关于欧亚大陆和美洲比较历史的第14章,为我思考本书提供了起点。

The best-known or most notorious recent entrant into the debate about group differences in intelligence is Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994).

最近参加关于智力群体差异辩论的最著名或最臭名昭著的人是理查德·赫恩斯坦和查尔斯·默里,《钟形曲线:美国生活中的智力和阶级结构》(纽约:自由出版社,1994年)

Chapter 1

第一章

Excellent books about early human evolution include Richard Klein, The Human Career (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), Roger Lewin, Bones of Contention (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), Paul Mellars and Chris Stringer, eds., The Human Revolution: Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origins of Modern Humans (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1989), Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin, Origins Reconsidered (New York: Doubleday, 1992), D. Tab Rasmussen, ed., The Origin and Evolution of Humans and Humanness (Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 1993), Matthew Nitecki and Doris Nitecki, eds., Origins of Anatomically Modern Humans (New York: Plenum, 1994), and Chris Stringer and Robin McKie, African Exodus (London: Jonathan Cape, 1996). Three popular books dealing specifically with the Neanderthals are Christopher Stringer and Clive Gamble, In Search of the Neanderthals (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1993), Erik Trinkaus and Pat Shipman, The Neandertals (New York: Knopf, 1993), and Ian Tattersall, The Last Neanderthal (New York: Macmillan, 1995).

关于早期人类进化的优秀书籍包括理查德·克莱因,《人类职业》(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1989年)、罗杰·勒温、《争论的焦点》(纽约:西蒙和舒斯特,1989年),保罗·梅拉尔斯和克里斯·斯特林格主编,《人类革命:现代人类起源的行为和生物学观点》(爱丁堡:爱丁堡大学出版社,1988年),Richard Leakey和Roger Lewin,《重新考虑起源》(纽约:Doubleday,1992年),D.Tab Rasmussen主编,《人类和人性的起源和进化》(波士顿:琼斯和巴特利特,1993年),Matthew Nitecki和Doris Nitecki主编,《解剖现代人的起源》(纽约∶全会,1994年),以及Chris Stringer和Robin McKie,《非洲出埃及记》(伦敦:乔纳森·凯普,1996年)。三本专门针对尼安德特人的畅销书是克里斯托弗·斯特林格和克莱夫·甘博的《寻找尼安德特人》(纽约:泰晤士河和哈德逊,1993年)、埃里克·特林考斯和帕特·希普曼的《尼安德特人传》(纽约:克诺夫,1993年)和伊恩·塔特索尔的《最后一个尼安德特人称》(纽约:麦克米兰,1995年)

Genetic evidence of human origins is the subject of the two books by L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza et al. already cited under the Prologue, and of chapter 1 of my book The Third Chimpanzee. Two technical papers with recent advances in the genetic evidence are J. L. Mountain and L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, “Inference of human evolution through cladistic analysis of nuclear DNA restriction polymorphism,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91:6515–19 (1994), and D. B. Goldstein et al., “Genetic absolute dating based on microsatellites and the origin of modern humans,” ibid. 92:6723–27 (1995).

人类起源的基因证据是L.Luca Cavalli Sforza等人的两本书的主题,这两本书已经在序言中引用,我的书《第三只黑猩猩》第一章也提到了这一主题。两篇关于遗传证据最新进展的技术论文是J.L.Mountain和L.L.Cavalli Sforza,“通过核DNA限制性多态性的分支分析推断人类进化”,《国家科学院学报》91:6515–19(1994年),以及D.B.Goldstein等人。,“基于微卫星和现代人类起源的基因绝对年代测定”,同上,92:6723-27(1995)

References to the human colonization of Australia, New Guinea, and the Bismarck and Solomon Archipelagoes, and to extinctions of large animals there, are listed under further readings for Chapter 15. In particular, Tim Flannery, The Future Eaters (New York: Braziller, 1995), discusses those subjects in clear, understandable terms and explains the problems with claims of very recent survival of extinct big Australian mammals.

关于澳大利亚、新几内亚、俾斯麦和所罗门群岛的人类殖民,以及那里大型动物的灭绝,在第15章的进一步阅读中列出。特别是未来食客蒂姆·弗兰纳里(Tim Flannery,the Future Eaters)(纽约:巴西勒,1995年)明确讨论了这些主题,可以理解的术语,并解释了最近灭绝的澳大利亚大型哺乳动物存活的说法的问题。

The standard text on Late Pleistocene and Recent extinctions of large animals is Paul Martin and Richard Klein, eds., Quaternary Extinctions (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1984). More recent updates are Richard Klein, “The impact of early people on the environment: The case of large mammal extinctions,” pp. 13–34 in J. E. Jacobsen and J. Firor, Human Impact on the Environment (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992), and Anthony Stuart, “Mammalian extinctions in the Late Pleistocene of Northern Eurasia and North America,” Biological Reviews 66:453–62 (1991). David Steadman summarizes recent evidence that extinction waves accompanied human settlement of Pacific islands in his paper “Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: Biodiversity meets zooarchaeology,” Science 267:1123–31 (1995).

关于晚更新世和最近大型动物灭绝的标准文本是Paul Martin和Richard Klein主编的《第四纪灭绝》(图森:亚利桑那大学出版社,1984年)。最近的更新是理查德·克莱因,“早期人类对环境的影响:大型哺乳动物灭绝的案例”,J.E.雅各布森和J.Firor,《人类对环境影响》(科罗拉多州博尔德:威斯特维尤出版社,1992年)第13-34页,安东尼·斯图尔特,《欧亚大陆北部和北美晚更新世哺乳动物灭绝》,生物评论66:453-62(1991年)。David Steadman在其论文《太平洋岛屿鸟类的史前灭绝:生物多样性与动物考古学》,Science 267:1123–31(1995)中总结了灭绝波伴随着太平洋岛屿人类定居的最新证据。

Popular accounts of the settlement of the Americas, the accompanying extinctions of large mammals, and the resulting controversies are Brian Fagan, The Great Journey: The Peopling of Ancient America (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1987), and chapter 18 of my book The Third Chimpanzee, both of which provide many other references. Ronald Carlisle, ed., Americans before Columbus: Ice-Age Origins (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1988), includes a chapter by J. M. Adovasio and his colleagues on pre-Clovis evidence at the Meadowcroft site. Papers by C. Vance Haynes, Jr., an expert on the Clovis horizon and reported pre-Clovis sites, include “Contributions of radiocarbon dating to the geochronology of the peopling of the New World,” pp. 354–74 in R. E. Taylor, A. Long, and R. S. Kra, eds., Radiocarbon after Four Decades (New York: Springer, 1992), and “Clovis-Folson geochronology and climate change,” pp. 219–36 in Olga Soffer and N. D. Praslov, eds., From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic Paleo-Indian Adaptations (New York: Plenum, 1993). Pre-Clovis claims for the Pedra Furada site are argued by N. Guidon and G. Delibrias, “Carbon-14 dates point to man in the Americas 32,000 years ago,” Nature 321:769–71 (1986), and David Meltzer et al., “On a Pleistocene human occupation at Pedra Furada, Brazil,” Antiquity 68:695–714 (1994). Other publications relevant to the pre-Clovis debate include T. D. Dillehay et al., “Earliest hunters and gatherers of South America,” Journal of World Prehistory 6:145–204 (1992), T. D. Dillehay, Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Site in Chile (Washington, D.C.; Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989), T. D. Dillehay and D. J. Meltzer, eds., The First Americans: Search and Research (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1991), Thomas Lynch “Glacial-age man in South America —a critical review,” American Antiquity 55:12–36 (1990), John Hoffecker et al., “The colonization of Beringia and the peopling of the New World,” Science 259:46–53 (1993), and A. C. Roosevelt et al., “Paleoindian cave dwellers in the Amazon: The peopling of the Americas,” Science 272:373–84 (1996).

关于美洲殖民地、大型哺乳动物随之灭绝以及由此引发的争议的流行报道有布赖恩·法根(Brian Fagan)、《伟大的旅程:古代美洲的人口》(纽约:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1987年)和我的书《第三只黑猩猩》第18章,这两本书都提供了许多其他参考资料。罗纳德·卡莱尔主编的《哥伦布之前的美国人:冰河时代的起源》(匹兹堡:匹兹堡大学,1988年),包括J.M.阿多瓦西奥和他的同事在梅多克罗夫特遗址关于前克洛维斯证据的一章。克洛维斯地平线专家C.万斯·海恩斯(C.Vance Haynes,Jr.)和报告的克洛维斯前遗址的论文包括“放射性碳年代测定对新世界人口地质年代学的贡献”,R.E.Taylor,A.Long和R.S.Kra,eds.四十年后的放射性碳(纽约:Springer,1992),和“克洛维斯·福尔森地质年代学和气候变化”,奥尔加·索弗和N.D.普拉斯洛编辑,第219-36页,从科斯滕基到克洛维斯:旧石器时代晚期对旧印度的适应(纽约:全会,1993年)。N.Guidon和G.Delibrias认为,克洛维斯之前对佩德拉·富拉达遗址的主张,“碳-14日期指向32000年前美洲的人类”,《自然》321:769-71(1986年),以及David Meltzer等人,《关于巴西佩德拉·富拉达的更新世人类占领》,《古代》68:695-714(1994年)。与克洛维斯之前的辩论相关的其他出版物包括T.D.Dillehay等人,《南美洲最早的猎人和采集者》,《世界史前史杂志》6:145-204(1992),T.D.DillehayMonte Verde:智利晚更新世遗址(华盛顿特区;史密森学会出版社,1989),T.D.Dillehay和D.J.Meltzer,eds。,《第一批美国人:搜索与研究》(博卡·拉顿:CRC出版社,1991年),托马斯·林奇《南美洲冰河时代的人-评论》,《美国古代》55:12-36(1990年),约翰·霍夫克等人,《白令吉亚的殖民和新世界的人口》,《科学》259:46-53(1993年),以及a.C.罗斯福等人。,“亚马逊河流域的古印第安人洞穴居住者:美洲的居民”,《科学》272:373–84(1996)

Chapter 2

第二章

Two outstanding books explicitly concerned with cultural differences among Polynesian islands are Patrick Kirch, The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), and the same author's The Wet and the Dry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994). Much of Peter Bellwood's The Polynesians, rev. ed. (London: Thames and Hudson, 1987), also deals with this problem. Notable books dealing with specific Polynesian islands include Michael King, Moriori (Auckland: Penguin, 1989), on the Chatham Islands, Patrick Kirch, Feathered Gods and Fishhooks (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985), on Hawaii, Patrick Kirch and Marshall Sahlins, Anahulu (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), also on Hawaii, Jo Anne Van Tilburg, Easter Island (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), and Paul Bahn and John Flenley, Easter Island, Earth Island (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992).

两本明确关注波利尼西亚群岛文化差异的杰出著作是帕特里克·基尔奇(Patrick Kirch),《波利尼西亚酋长领地的演变》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1984年),以及同一作者的《湿与干》(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1994年)。彼得·贝尔伍德(Peter Bellwood)的《波利尼西亚人》(The Polynesian,rev.ed)(伦敦:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1987年)中的大部分也涉及到这个问题。有关波利尼西亚特定岛屿的著名书籍包括迈克尔·金(Michael King)、莫里奥里(奥克兰:企鹅出版社,1989年)、查塔姆群岛(Chatham islands)、帕特里克·基尔奇(Patrick Kirch)、羽毛神和鱼钩(檀香山:夏威夷大学出版社,1985年)、夏威夷、帕特里克·基尔奇和马歇尔·萨林(Marshall Sahlins)、阿纳胡鲁(Anahulu)(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1992年),以及夏威夷的乔·安妮·范·蒂尔伯格(Jo Anne Van Tilburg,复活节岛(华盛顿特区:史密森学会出版社,1994年),保罗·班和约翰·弗伦利,地球岛复活节岛(伦敦:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1992年)

Chapter 3

My account of Pizarro's capture of Atahuallpa combines the eyewitness accounts by Francisco Pizarro's brothers Hernando Pizarro and Pedro Pizarro and by Pizarro's companions Miguel de Estete, Cristóbal de Mena, Ruiz de Arce, and Francisco de Xerez. The accounts by Hernando Pizarro, Miguel de Estete, and Francisco de Xerez have been translated by Clements Markham, Reports on the Discovery of Peru, Hakluyt Society, 1st ser., vol. 47 (New York, 1872); Pedro Pizarro's account, by Philip Means, Relation of the Discovery and Conquest of the Kingdoms of Peru (New York: Cortés Society, 1921); and Cristóbal de Mena's account, by Joseph Sinclair, The Conquest of Peru, as Recorded by a Member of the Pizarro Expedition (New York, 1929). The account by Ruiz de Arce was reprinted in Boletín de la Real Academia de Historia (Madrid) 102:327–84 (1933). John Hemming's excellent The Conquest of the Incas (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970) gives a full account of the capture and indeed of the whole conquest, with an extensive bibliography. A 19th-century account of the conquest, William H. Prescott's History of the Conquest of Peru (New York, 1847), is still highly readable and ranks among the classics of historical writing. Corresponding modern and classic 19th-century accounts of the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs are, respectively, Hugh Thomas, Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993), and William Prescott, History of the Conquest of Mexico (New York, 1843). Contemporary eyewitness accounts of the conquest of the Aztecs were written by Cortés himself (reprinted as Hernando Cortés, Five Letters of Cortés to the Emperor [New York: Norton, 1969]) and by many of Cortés's companions (reprinted in Patricia de Fuentes, ed., The Conquistadors [Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993]).

我对皮萨罗抓获阿塔瓦尔帕的叙述结合了弗朗西斯科·皮萨罗的兄弟埃尔南多·皮萨洛和佩德罗·皮萨诺以及皮萨罗同伴米格尔·德·埃斯特特、克里斯托瓦尔·德·梅纳、鲁伊斯·德·阿尔奇和弗朗西斯科·德·谢雷斯的目击者叙述。Hernando Pizarro、Miguel de Estete和Francisco de Xerez的叙述已由Clements Markham翻译,关于秘鲁发现的报告,Hakluyt协会,第1版。,第47卷(纽约,1872年);佩德罗·皮萨罗(Pedro Pizarro)以菲利普的方式叙述了发现和征服秘鲁王国的关系(纽约:科尔特斯学会,1921年);以及约瑟夫·辛克莱(Joseph Sinclair)对克里斯托瓦尔·德梅纳(Cristóbal de Mena)的描述,皮萨罗探险队(1929年,纽约)的一名成员记录了对秘鲁的征服。鲁伊斯·德·阿尔奇的叙述在《皇家历史学院博莱廷》(马德里)102:327–84(1933年)中重印。约翰·海明(John Hemming)的优秀作品《征服印加》(圣地亚哥:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1970年)全面介绍了俘虏以及整个征服过程,并提供了大量参考书目。威廉·H·普雷斯科特(William H.Prescott)的《秘鲁征服史》(纽约,1847年)是19世纪对这一征服的描述,至今仍具有很高的可读性,是历史写作的经典之作。关于西班牙征服阿兹台克人的相应现代和经典19世纪记录分别是休·托马斯(Hugh Thomas),《征服:蒙特祖马(Montezuma)》、《科尔特斯》(Cortés)和《旧墨西哥的沦陷》(纽约:西蒙和舒斯特,1993年),以及威廉·普雷斯科特(William Prescott),《征服墨西哥的历史》(纽约,1843年)。当代目击者对阿兹台克人征服的描述是由科尔特斯本人撰写的(重印为埃尔南多·科尔特斯,科尔特斯给皇帝的五封信[纽约:诺顿,1969]),以及科尔特斯的许多同伴撰写的(在《征服者帕特里夏·德·富恩特斯》(Patricia de Fuentes,ed.)中重印[诺曼:俄克拉荷马大学出版社,1993年])

Chapters 4–10

References for these seven chapters on food production will be combined, since many of the references apply to more than one of them.

关于食品生产的这七章的参考文献将合并,因为许多参考文献适用于其中的一个以上。

Five important sources, all of them excellent and fact-filled, address the question how food production evolved from the hunter-gatherer lifestyle: Kent Flannery, “The origins of agriculture,” Annual Reviews of Anthropology 2:271–310 (1973); Jack Harlan, Crops and Man, 2nd ed. (Madison, Wis.: American Society of Agronomy, 1992); Richard MacNeish, The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992); David Rindos, The Origins of Agriculture: An Evolutionary Perspective (San Diego: Academic Press, 1984); and Bruce Smith, The Emergence of Agriculture (New York: Scientific American Library, 1995). Notable older references about food production in general include two multi-author volumes: Peter Ucko and G. W. Dimbleby, eds., The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals (Chicago: Aldine, 1969), and Charles Reed, ed., Origins of Agriculture (The Hague: Mouton, 1977). Carl Sauer, Agricultural Origins and Dispersals (New York: American Geographical Society, 1952), is a classic early comparison of Old World and New World food production, while Erich Isaac, Geography of Domestication (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), addresses the questions of where, when, and how regarding plant and animal domestication.

五个重要的资料来源,所有这些资料都很优秀,而且事实充分,解决了粮食生产如何从狩猎-采集生活方式演变而来的问题:Kent Flannery,“农业的起源”,人类学年度评论2:271-310(1973);杰克·哈兰,《作物与人类》,第二版(威斯康星州麦迪逊:美国农学学会,1992年);理查德·麦克内什,《农业和定居生活的起源》(诺曼:俄克拉荷马大学出版社,1992年);David Rindos,《农业的起源:进化的视角》(圣地亚哥:学术出版社,1984年);布鲁斯·史密斯,《农业的出现》(纽约:美国科学图书馆,1995年)。关于食品生产的著名老参考文献包括两卷多作者的书:《植物和动物的驯化和开发》(芝加哥:阿尔丁,1969年)和《农业的起源》(海牙:莫顿,1977年)。卡尔·绍尔(Carl Sauer),《农业起源与扩散》(纽约:美国地理学会,1952年),是旧世界和新世界粮食生产的经典早期比较,而埃里希·艾萨克(Erich Isaac),《驯化地理》(Englewood Cliffs,N.J.:Prentice Hall,1970年)则探讨了植物和动物驯化的地点、时间和方式问题。

Among references specifically about plant domestication, Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of Plants in the Old World, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), stands out. It provides the most detailed account of plant domestication available for any part of the world. For each significant crop grown in western Eurasia, the book summarizes archaeological and genetic evidence about its domestication and subsequent spread.

在专门关于植物驯化的参考文献中,丹尼尔·佐哈里和玛丽亚·霍普夫的《旧世界植物的驯化》,第二版(牛津:牛津大学出版社,1993年)脱颖而出。它提供了世界任何地方可用的最详细的植物驯化说明。对于欧亚大陆西部种植的每一种重要作物,本书总结了其驯化和随后传播的考古和遗传学证据。

Among important multi-author books on plant domestication are C. Wesley Cowan and Patty Jo Watson, eds., The Origins of Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), David Harris and Gordon Hillman, eds., Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of Plant Exploitation (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), and C. Barigozzi, ed., The Origin and Domestication of Cultivated Plants (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1986). Two engaging popular accounts of plant domestication by Charles Heiser, Jr., are Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), and Of Plants and People (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985). J. Smartt and N. W. Simmonds, ed., Evolution of Crop Plants, 2nd ed. (London: Longman, 1995), is the standard reference volume summarizing information about all of the world's major crops and many minor ones. Three excellent papers describe the changes that evolve automatically in wild plants under human cultivation: Mark Blumler and Roger Byrne, “The ecological genetics of domestication and the origins of agriculture,” Current Anthropology 32:23–54 (1991); Charles Heiser, Jr., “Aspects of unconscious selection and the evolution of domesticated plants,” Euphytica 37:77–81 (1988); and Daniel Zohary, “Modes of evolution in plants under domestication,” in W. F. Grant, ed., Plant Biosystematics (Montreal: Academic Press, 1984). Mark Blumler, “Independent inventionism and recent genetic evidence on plant domestication,” Economic Botany 46:98–111 (1992), evaluates the evidence for multiple domestications of the same wild plant species, as opposed to single origins followed by spread.

关于植物驯化的重要多作者书籍包括C.Wesley Cowan和Patty Jo Watson编辑的《农业的起源》(华盛顿特区:史密森学会出版社,1992年),David Harris和Gordon Hillman编辑的《觅食和农业:植物开发的演变》(伦敦:Unwin Hyman,1989年),以及C.Barigozzi编辑。,栽培植物的起源和驯化(阿姆斯特丹:Elsevier,1986)。小查尔斯·海瑟(Charles Heiser,Jr.)关于植物驯化的两篇引人入胜的通俗报道分别是《文明的种子:食物的故事》(第三版)(剑桥:哈佛大学出版社,1990年)和《植物与人》(诺曼:俄克拉荷马大学出版社,1985年)。J、 Smartt和N.W.Simmonds主编,《作物的进化》,第二版(伦敦:朗曼,1995年),是总结世界上所有主要作物和许多次要作物信息的标准参考书。三篇优秀的论文描述了在人类栽培的野生植物中自动进化的变化:马克·布卢姆勒和罗杰·伯恩,“驯化的生态遗传学和农业的起源”,当代人类学32:23-54(1991);小查尔斯·海瑟,“无意识选择的方面和驯化植物的进化”,《幼发经》37:77-81(1988);Daniel Zohary,“驯化植物的进化模式”,W.F.Grant主编,《植物生物系统学》(蒙特利尔:学术出版社,1984年)。马克·布卢姆勒,《植物驯化的独立发明论和最新遗传证据》,《经济植物学》46:98–111(1992年),评估了同一野生植物物种的多重驯化证据,而不是单一起源然后传播的证据。

Among writings of general interest in connection with animal domestication, the standard encyclopedic reference work to the world's wild mammals is Ronald Nowak, ed., Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). Juliet Clutton-Brock, Domesticated Animals from Early Times (London: British Museum [Natural History], 1981), gives an excellent summary of all important domesticated mammals. I. L. Mason, ed., Evolution of Domesticated Animals (London: Longman, 1984), is a multi-author volume discussing each significant domesticated animal individually. Simon Davis, The Archaeology of Animals (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), provides an excellent account of what can be learned from mammal bones in archaeological sites. Juliet Clutton-Brock, ed., The Walking Larder (London: Unwin-Hyman, 1989), presents 31 papers about how humans have domesticated, herded, hunted, and been hunted by animals around the world. A comprehensive book in German about domesticated animals is Wolf Herre and Manfred R hrs, Haustiere zoologisch gesehen (Stuttgart: Fischer, 1990). Stephen Budiansky, The Covenant of the Wild (New York: William Morrow, 1992), is a popular account of how animal domestication evolved automatically from relationships between humans and animals. An important paper on how domestic animals became used for plowing, transport, wool, and milk is Andrew Sheratt, “Plough and pastoralism: Aspects of the secondary products revolution,” pp. 261–305 in Ian Hodder et al., eds., Pattern of the Past (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).

在与动物驯化相关的普遍关注的著作中,世界野生哺乳动物的标准百科全书参考著作是罗纳德·诺瓦克主编的《沃克的世界哺乳动物》,第五版(巴尔的摩:约翰·霍普金斯大学出版社,1991年)。朱丽叶·克拉顿·布罗克,《早期的家养动物》(伦敦:大英博物馆[自然历史],1981年),对所有重要的家养哺乳动物进行了极好的总结。一、 L.Mason主编的《家养动物的进化》(伦敦:朗曼,1984年)是一本多作者的书,分别讨论了每种重要的家养动物。西蒙·戴维斯的《动物考古学》(纽黑文:耶鲁大学出版社,1987年)对从考古遗址中的哺乳动物骨骼中可以学到什么提供了极好的说明。朱丽叶·克拉顿·布罗克主编的《行走的储藏室》(伦敦:Unwin Hyman,1989年)介绍了31篇关于人类如何驯养、放牧、狩猎和被世界各地的动物猎杀的论文。Wolf Herre和Manfred R hrs,Haustiere zoologisch gesehen(斯图加特:菲舍尔,1990)是一本关于家养动物的德语综合书籍。斯蒂芬·布迪安斯基(Stephen Budiansky)《野性之约》(纽约:威廉·莫罗,1992年)是一本关于动物驯化如何从人与动物之间的关系中自动进化而来的通俗著作。安德鲁·谢拉特(Andrew Sheratt)撰写了一篇关于家畜如何用于耕作、运输、羊毛和牛奶的重要论文,《耕作和畜牧业:次级产品革命的方面》,第261-305页,载于伊恩·霍德等人主编的《过去的模式》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1981年)

Accounts of food production in particular areas of the world include a deliciously detailed mini-encyclopedia of Roman agricultural practices, Pliny, Natural History, vols. 17–19 (Latin text side-by-side with English translation in the Loeb Classical Library edition [Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961]); Albert Ammerman and L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, The Neolithic Transition and the Genetics of Populations in Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), analyzing the spread of food production from the Fertile Crescent westward across Europe; Graeme Barker, Prehistoric Farming in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), and Alasdair Whittle, Neolithic Europe: A Survey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), for Europe; Donald Henry, From Foraging to Agriculture: The Levant at the End of the Ice Age (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), for the lands bordering the eastern shore of the Mediterranean; and D. E. Yen, “Domestication: Lessons from New Guinea,” pp. 558–69 in Andrew Pawley, ed., Man and a Half (Auckland: Polynesian Society, 1991), for New Guinea. Edward Schafer, The Golden Peaches of Samarkand (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), describes the animals, plants, and other things imported into China during the T'ang dynasty.

世界特定地区的粮食生产记录包括一本精美详细的罗马农业实践迷你百科全书,普林尼,自然历史,vols。17-19(拉丁语文本与勒布古典图书馆版的英语翻译并排[剑桥:哈佛大学出版社,1961年]);Albert Ammerman和L.L.Cavalli Sforza,《新石器时代的变迁与欧洲人口遗传学》(普林斯顿:普林斯顿大学出版社,1984年),分析了从肥沃的新月向西传播到整个欧洲的粮食生产;Graeme Barker,《欧洲史前农业》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1985年)和Alasdair Whittle,《新石器时代欧洲:调查》(剑桥:坎布里奇大学出版社,2005年),欧洲版;唐纳德·亨利,《从觅食到农业:冰河世纪末的黎凡特》(费城:宾夕法尼亚大学出版社,1989年),为地中海东岸的边缘地带;和D.E.Yen,“驯化:新几内亚的教训”,安德鲁·帕利主编,《一个半人》(奥克兰:波利尼西亚社会,1991年)第558-69页,为新几内亚撰写。爱德华·谢弗(Edward Schafer)《撒马尔罕的金桃》(伯克利:加州大学出版社,1963年)描述了唐朝时期输入中国的动物、植物和其他东西。

The following are accounts of plant domestication and crops in specific parts of the world. For Europe and the Fertile Crescent: Willem van Zeist et al., eds., Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany (Rotterdam: Balkema, 1991), and Jane Renfrew, Paleoethnobotany (London: Methuen, 1973). For the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley, and for the Indian subcontinent in general: Steven Weber, Plants and Harappan Subsistence (New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies, 1991). For New World crops: Charles Heiser, Jr., “New perspectives on the origin and evolution of New World domesticated plants: Summary,” Economic Botany 44(3 suppl.): 111–16 (1990), and the same author's “Origins of some cultivated New World plants,” Annual Reviews of Ecology and Systematics 10:309–26 (1979). For a Mexican site that may document the transition from hunting-gathering to early agriculture in Mesoamerica: Kent Flannery, ed., Guilá Naquitz (New York: Academic Press, 1986). For an account of crops grown in the Andes during Inca times, and their potential uses today: National Research Council, Lost Crops of the Incas (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1989). For plant domestication in the eastern and / or southwestern United States: Bruce Smith “Origins of agriculture in eastern North America,” Science 246:1566–71 (1989); William Keegan, ed., Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 1987); Richard Ford, ed., Prehistoric Food Production in North America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, 1985); and R. G. Matson, The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991). Bruce Smith, “The origins of agriculture in the Americas,” Evolutionary Anthropology 3:174–84 (1995), discusses the revisionist view, based on accelerator mass spectrometry dating of very small plant samples, that the origins of agriculture in the Americas were much more recent than previously believed.

以下是世界特定地区的植物驯化和作物介绍。欧洲和肥沃新月:Willem van Zeist等人主编,《旧大陆古人种植物学的进展》(鹿特丹:Balkema,1991年)和Jane Renfrew,《古人类植物学》(伦敦:Methuen,1973年)。印度河流域的哈拉帕文明和整个印度次大陆:史蒂文·韦伯,《植物与哈拉帕生存》(新德里:美国印第安研究所,1991年)。对于新世界作物:小查尔斯·海瑟,“新世界驯化植物起源和演化的新视角:摘要”,《经济植物学》44(3补充篇):111-16(1990),以及同一作者的“一些栽培新世界植物的起源”,《生态学和系统学年鉴》10:309-26(1979)。对于可能记录中美洲从狩猎采集到早期农业转变的墨西哥遗址:Kent Flannery,ed.,GuiláNaquitz(纽约:学术出版社,1986年)。关于印加时期安第斯山脉种植的作物及其今天的潜在用途:国家研究委员会,《印加损失的作物》(华盛顿特区:国家科学院出版社,1989年)。美国东部和/或西南部的植物驯化:布鲁斯·史密斯《北美东部农业的起源》,科学246:1566-71(1989);威廉·基根主编,《东部林地的新兴园艺经济》(卡本代尔:南伊利诺伊大学,1987年);理查德·福特主编,《北美史前食品生产》(安娜堡:密歇根大学人类学博物馆,1985年);和R.G.Matson,《西南农业的起源》(图森:亚利桑那大学出版社,1991年)。布鲁斯·史密斯,《美洲农业的起源》,进化人类学3:174–84(1995),讨论了基于加速器质谱法测定非常小的植物样本的修正主义观点,即美洲农业的来源比以前认为的要晚得多。

The following are accounts of animal domestication and livestock in specific parts of the world. For central and eastern Europe: S. B k nyi, History of Domestic Mammals in Central and Eastern Europe (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiad , 1974). For Africa: Andrew Smith, Pastoralism in Africa (London: Hurst, 1992). For the Andes: Elizabeth Wing, “Domestication of Andean mammals,” pp. 246–64 in F. Vuilleumier and M. Monasterio, eds., High Altitude Tropical Biogeography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986).

以下是世界特定地区的动物驯化和家畜情况。中欧和东欧:S.B k nyi,《中欧和东欧家养哺乳动物的历史》(布达佩斯:Akadémiai Kiad,1974)。非洲:安德鲁·史密斯,《非洲的畜牧业》(伦敦:赫斯特,1992年)。对于安第斯山脉:伊丽莎白·温,“安第斯哺乳动物的驯化”,F.Vuilleumier和M.Monasterio主编,第246-64页,高海拔热带生物地理学(牛津:牛津大学出版社,1986年)

References on specific important crops include the following. Thomas Sodestrom et al., eds., Grass Systematics and Evolution (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1987), is a comprehensive multi-author account of grasses, the plant group that gave rise to our cereals, now the world's most important crops. Hugh Iltis, “From teosinte to maize: The catastrophic sexual transmutation,” Science 222:886–94 (1983), gives an account of the drastic changes in reproductive biology involved in the evolution of corn from teosinte, its wild ancestor. Yan Wenming, “China's earliest rice agricultural remains,” Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin 10:118–26 (1991), discusses early rice domestication in South China. Two books by Charles Heiser, Jr., are popular accounts of particular crops: The Sunflower (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976) and The Gourd Book (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979).

关于特定重要作物的参考资料包括以下内容。托马斯·索德斯特罗姆(Thomas Sodestrom)等人主编的《草地系统学与进化》(华盛顿特区:史密森学会出版社,1987年)是一篇关于草地的综合性多作者著作,草地是一个植物群,它产生了我们的谷物,现在是世界上最重要的作物。休·伊尔蒂斯(Hugh Iltis),《科学》(Science)222:886–94(1983年),“从Teosite到玉米:灾难性的性嬗变”,描述了玉米从其野生祖先Teosite进化而来的过程中生殖生物学的急剧变化。颜文明,“中国最早的水稻农业遗迹”,印度-太平洋史前协会公告10:118-26(1991),讨论了中国南方的早稻驯化。小查尔斯·海瑟(Charles Heiser,Jr.)的两本书是关于特定作物的畅销书:《向日葵》(诺曼:俄克拉荷马大学出版社,1976年)和《葫芦书》(诺曼∶俄克拉荷玛大学出版社,1979年)

Many papers or books are devoted to accounts of particular domesticated animal species. R. T. Loftus et al., “Evidence for two independent domestications of cattle,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 91:2757–61 (1994), uses evidence from mitochondrial DNA to demonstrate that cattle were domesticated independently in western Eurasia and in the Indian subcontinent. For horses: Juliet Clutton-Brock, Horse Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), Richard Meadow and Hans-Peter Uerpmann, eds., Equids in the Ancient World (Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1986), Matthew J. Kust, Man and Horse in History (Alexandria, Va.: Plutarch Press, 1983), and Robin Law, The Horse in West African History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980). For pigs: Colin Groves, Ancestors for the Pigs: Taxonomy and Phylogeny of the Genus Sus (Technical Bulletin no. 3, Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University [1981]). For llamas: Kent Flannery, Joyce Marcus, and Robert Reynolds, The Flocks of the Wamani (San Diego: Academic Press, 1989). For dogs: Stanley Olsen, Origins of the Domestic Dog (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985). John Varner and Jeannette Varner, Dogs of the Conquest (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983), describes the Spaniards' use of dogs as military weapons to kill Indians during the Spanish conquests of the Americas. Clive Spinnage, The Natural History of Antelopes (New York: Facts on File, 1986), gives an account of the biology of antelopes, and hence a starting point for trying to understand why none of these seemingly obvious candidates for domestication was actually domesticated. Derek Goodwin, Domestic Birds (London: Museum Press, 1965), summarizes the bird species that have been domesticated, and R. A. Donkin, The Muscovy Duck Cairina moschata domestica (Rotterdam: Balkema, 1989), discusses one of the sole two bird species domesticated in the New World.

许多论文或书籍都致力于描述特定的驯化动物物种。R、 T.Loftus等人,《牛两次独立驯化的证据》,《美国国家科学院院刊》91:2757–61(1994),使用线粒体DNA的证据证明牛在欧亚大陆西部和印度次大陆独立驯化。马:朱丽叶·克拉顿·布罗克,《马力》(剑桥:哈佛大学出版社,1992年),理查德·梅多和汉斯·彼得·乌尔普曼主编,《古代世界的马》(威斯巴登:赖切特,1986年),马修·J·库斯特,《历史上的人与马》(弗吉尼亚州亚历山大:普鲁塔克出版社,1983年),罗宾·劳,《西非历史上的马》(牛津:牛津大学出版社,1980年)。猪:科林·格罗夫斯,《猪的祖先:Sus属的分类和系统发育》(澳大利亚国立大学太平洋研究学院史前系第3号技术公告[1981])。美洲驼:肯特·弗兰纳里、乔伊斯·马库斯和罗伯特·雷诺兹,《瓦马尼的羊群》(圣地亚哥:学术出版社,1989年)。对于狗:斯坦利·奥尔森,《家养狗的起源》(图森:亚利桑那大学出版社,1985年)。约翰·瓦尔纳和珍妮特·瓦尔纳,《征服的狗》(诺曼:俄克拉荷马大学出版社,1983年)描述了西班牙人在西班牙征服美洲期间使用狗作为军事武器杀死印第安人。克莱夫·斯宾纳奇(Clive Spinnage)《羚羊的自然史》(纽约:档案中的事实,1986年)介绍了羚羊的生物学,因此是试图理解为什么这些看似显而易见的驯化候选者都没有被真正驯化的起点。德里克·古德温(Derek Goodwin),《家养鸟类》(伦敦:博物馆出版社,1965年)总结了已经驯化的鸟类物种,而R.A.Donkin,家养番鸭Cairina moschata(鹿特丹:Balkema,1989年)讨论了在新大陆驯化的唯一两种鸟类物种之一。

Finally, the complexities of calibrating radiocarbon dates are discussed by G. W. Pearson, “How to cope with calibration,” Antiquity 61:98–103 (1987), R. E. Taylor, eds., Radiocarbon after Four Decades: An Interdisciplinary Perspective (New York: Springer, 1992), M. Stuiver et al., “Calibration,” Radiocarbon 35:1–244 (1993), S. Bowman “Using radiocarbon: An update,” Antiquity 68:838–43 (1994), and R. E. Taylor, M. Stuiver, and C. Vance Haynes, Jr., “Calibration of the Late Pleistocene radiocarbon time scale: Clovis and Folsom age estimates,” Antiquity vol. 70 (1996).

最后,G.W.Pearson,“如何应对校准”,Antiquity 61:98–103(1987),R.E.Taylor主编,《四十年后的放射性碳:跨学科视角》(纽约:Springer,1992),M.Stuiver等人,“校准”,放射性碳35:1–244(1993),S。鲍曼“使用放射性碳:更新”,古物68:838–43(1994年),R.E.泰勒、M.斯图弗和C.万斯·海恩斯,Jr.,“晚更新世放射性碳时标的校准:克洛维斯和福尔松年龄估计”,古物卷70(1996年)

Chapter 11

For a gripping account of the impact of disease on a human population, nothing can match Thucydides' account of the plague of Athens, in book 2 of his Peloponnesian War (available in many translations).

关于疾病对人类的影响,修昔底德在《伯罗奔尼撒战争》第二册中对雅典瘟疫的描述是扣人心弦的(有很多译本)

Three classic accounts of disease in history are Hans Zinsser, Rats, Lice, and History (Boston: Little, Brown, 1935), Geddes Smith, A Plague on Us (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1941), and William McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976). The last book, written by a distinguished historian rather than by a physician, has been especially influential in bringing historians to recognize the impacts of disease, as have been the two books by Alfred Crosby listed under the further readings for the Prologue.

历史上对疾病的三个经典描述是汉斯·辛瑟、老鼠、虱子和历史(波士顿:Little,Brown,1935年)、格迪斯·史密斯(Geddes Smith),《美国瘟疫》(纽约:联邦基金,1941年)和威廉·麦克尼尔(William McNeill),《瘟疫与人民》(纽约花园城:双日,1976年)。最后一本书是由一位杰出的历史学家而不是一位医生写的,在让历史学家认识疾病的影响方面具有特别的影响力,阿尔弗雷德·克罗斯比的两本书也在序言的进一步阅读下列出。

Friedrich Vogel and Arno Motulsky, Human Genetics, 2nd ed. (Berlin: Springer, 1986), the standard textbook on human genetics, is a convenient reference for natural selection of human populations by disease, and for the development of genetic resistance against specific diseases. Roy Anderson and Robert May, Infectious Diseases of Humans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), is a clear mathematical treatment of disease dynamics, transmission, and epidemiology. MacFarlane Burnet, Natural History of Infectious Disease (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), is a classic by a distinguished medical researcher, while Arno Karlen, Man and Microbes (New York: Putnam, 1995), is a recent popular account.

弗里德里希·沃格尔(Friedrich Vogel)和阿诺·莫图尔斯基(Arno Motulsky),《人类遗传学》,第二版(柏林:斯普林格,1986年),人类遗传学标准教科书,是按疾病对人类群体进行自然选择和发展对特定疾病的遗传抗性的方便参考。罗伊·安德森(Roy Anderson)和罗伯特·梅(Robert May),《人类传染病》(牛津:牛津大学出版社,1992年),是对疾病动力学、传播和流行病学的明确数学处理。麦克法兰·伯内特的《传染病自然史》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1953年)是一位杰出的医学研究人员的经典著作,而阿诺·卡伦的《人与微生物》(纽约:普特南,1995年)则是最近的一篇广受欢迎的文章。

Books and articles specifically concerned with the evolution of human infectious diseases include Aidan Cockburn, Infectious Diseases: Their Evolution and Eradication (Springfield, Ill.: Thomas, 1967); the same author's “Where did our infectious diseases come from ” pp. 103–13 in Health and Disease in Tribal Societies, CIBA Foundation Symposium, no. 49 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1977); George Williams and Randolph Nesse, “The dawn of Darwinian medicine,” Quarterly Reviews of Biology 66:1–62 (1991); and Paul Ewald, Evolution of Infectious Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

专门关注人类传染病演变的书籍和文章包括:艾丹·科伯恩,《传染病:其演变和根除》(伊利诺伊州斯普林菲尔德:托马斯,1967年);同一作者的《我们的传染病从何而来》第103-13页,《部落社会的健康与疾病》,汽巴基金会研讨会,第49期(阿姆斯特丹:Elsevier,1977年);乔治·威廉姆斯和伦道夫·内塞,“达尔文医学的黎明”,生物学季刊66:1-62(1991);和Paul Ewald,《传染病的演变》(纽约:牛津大学出版社,1994年)

Francis Black, “Infectious diseases in primitive societies,” Science 187:515–18 (1975), discusses the differences between endemic and acute diseases in their impact on, and maintenance in, small isolated societies. Frank Fenner, “Myxoma virus and Oryctolagus cuniculus: Two colonizing species,” pp. 485–501 in H. G. Baker and G. L. Stebbins, eds., Genetics of Colonizing Species (New York: Academic Press, 1965), describes the spread and evolution of Myxoma virus among Australian rabbits. Peter Panum, Observations Made during the Epidemic of Measles on the Faroe Islands in the Year 1846 (New York: American Public Health Association, 1940), illustrates how the arrival of an acute epidemic disease in an isolated nonresistant population quickly kills or immunizes the whole population. Francis Black, “Measles endemicity in insular populations: Critical community size and its evolutionary implication,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 11:207–11 (1966), uses such measles epidemics to calculate the minimum size of population required to maintain measles. Andrew Dobson, “The population biology of parasite-induced changes in host behavior,” Quarterly Reviews of Biology 63:139–65 (1988), discusses how parasites enhance their own transmission by changing the behavior of their host. Aidan Cockburn and Eve Cockburn, eds., Mummies, Diseases, and Ancient Cultures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), illustrates what can be learned from mummies about past impacts of diseases.

弗朗西斯·布莱克,《原始社会中的传染病》,《科学》187:515–18(1975年),讨论了地方病和急性病之间的差异及其对小型孤立社会的影响和维持。Frank Fenner,“粘液瘤病毒和粘液瘤菌:两种定殖物种”,H.G.Baker和G.L.Stebbins编辑的《定殖物种遗传学》(纽约:学术出版社,1965年)第485-501页,描述了粘液瘤毒在澳大利亚兔子中的传播和进化。彼得·帕纳姆(Peter Panum)在1846年法罗群岛麻疹流行期间所作的观察(纽约:美国公共卫生协会,1940年)说明了一种急性流行病如何在一个孤立的无抵抗力人群中迅速杀死或免疫整个人群。Francis Black,“岛屿人口中的麻疹地方性:临界社区规模及其进化含义”,《理论生物学杂志》11:207–11(1966年),使用此类麻疹流行病计算维持麻疹所需的最小人口规模。Andrew Dobson,“寄生虫诱导宿主行为变化的群体生物学”,《生物学季刊》63:139–65(1988),讨论了寄生虫如何通过改变宿主行为来增强自身传播。艾丹·科克本和伊芙·科克伯恩主编的《木乃伊、疾病和古代文化》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1983年)阐述了可以从木乃伊身上学到的关于疾病过去影响的知识。

As for accounts of disease impacts on previously unexposed populations, Henry Dobyns, Their Number Became Thinned (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983), marshals evidence for the view that European-introduced diseases killed up to 95 percent of all Native Americans. Subsequent books or articles arguing that controversial thesis include John Verano and Douglas Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the Americas (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992); Ann Ramenofsky, Vectors of Death (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987); Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987); and Dean Snow, “Microchronology and demographic evidence relating to the size of the pre-Columbian North American Indian population,” Science 268:1601–4 (1995). Two accounts of depopulation caused by European-introduced diseases among Hawaii's Polynesian population are David Stannard, Before the Horror: The Population of Hawaii on the Eve of Western Contact (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), and O. A. Bushnell, The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993). The near-extermination of the Sadlermiut Eskimos by a dysentery epidemic in the winter of 1902–3 is described by Susan Rowley, “The Sadlermiut: Mysterious or misunderstood ” pp. 361–84 in David Morrison and Jean-Luc Pilon, eds., Threads of Arctic Prehistory (Hull: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1994). The reverse phenomenon, of European deaths due to diseases encountered overseas, is discussed by Philip Curtin, Death by Migration: Europe's Encounter with the Tropical World in the 19th Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

至于疾病对先前未暴露人群的影响,亨利·多宾斯(Henry Dobyns)认为,他们的数量变少了(诺克斯维尔:田纳西大学出版社,1983年),他收集了证据证明欧洲引入的疾病导致95%的美洲原住民死亡。随后提出争议论点的书籍或文章包括John Verano和Douglas Ubelaker编辑的《美洲的疾病和人口学》(华盛顿特区:史密森学会出版社,1992);Ann Ramenofsky,《死亡媒介》(阿尔伯克基:新墨西哥大学出版社,1987年);拉塞尔·桑顿,《美洲印第安人大屠杀与生存》(诺曼:俄克拉荷马大学出版社,1987年);Dean Snow,“与前哥伦布时期北美印第安人口规模相关的微观年代学和人口统计学证据”,《科学》268:1601–4(1995)。关于欧洲引入的疾病在夏威夷波利尼西亚人口中造成的人口减少,有两种说法:恐怖发生前的大卫·斯坦纳德:《西方接触前夕的夏威夷人口》(檀香山:夏威夷大学出版社,1989年)和O.A.布什内尔《文明的礼物:夏威夷的细菌和种族灭绝》(檀香岭:夏威夷大学出版,1993年)。苏珊·罗利在《大卫·莫里森和让·吕克·皮隆编著的北极史前史线索》(赫尔:加拿大文明博物馆,1994年)第361-84页中描述了1902-1903年冬季痢疾疫情几乎使爱斯基摩人的萨勒米人灭绝。菲利普·柯廷(Philip Curtin)在《移民造成的死亡:19世纪欧洲与热带世界的遭遇》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1989年)一书中讨论了欧洲因海外遭遇疾病而死亡的相反现象。

Among accounts of specific diseases, Stephen Morse, ed., Emerging Viruses (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), contains many valuable chapters on “new” viral diseases of humans; so does Mary Wilson et al., eds., Disease in Evolution, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 740 (New York, 1995). References for other diseases include the following. For bubonic plague: Colin McEvedy, “Bubonic plague,” Scientific American 258(2): 118–23 (1988). For cholera: Norman Longmate, King Cholera (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1966). For influenza: Edwin Kilbourne, Influenza (New York: Plenum, 1987), and Robert Webster et al., “Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses,” Microbiological Reviews 56:152–79 (1992). For Lyme disease: Alan Barbour and Durland Fish, “The biological and social phenomenon of Lyme disease,” Science 260:1610–16 (1993), and Allan Steere, “Lyme disease: A growing threat to urban populations,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91:2378–83 (1994).

在对特定疾病的描述中,斯蒂芬·莫尔斯主编的《新兴病毒》(纽约:牛津大学出版社,1993年)包含了许多关于人类“新”病毒疾病的有价值的章节;玛丽·威尔逊等人也是如此,《进化中的疾病》,纽约科学院年鉴,第740卷(纽约,1995年)。其他疾病的参考文献包括以下内容。关于黑死病:科林·麦克维迪,“黑死病”,科学美国人258(2):118-23(1988)。霍乱:诺曼·朗马特,《霍乱之王》(伦敦:哈米什·汉密尔顿,1966年)。对于流感:Edwin Kilbourne,流感(纽约:全会,1987年),和Robert Webster等人,“甲型流感病毒的进化和生态学”,微生物评论56:152-79(1992年)。对于莱姆病:Alan Barbour和Durland Fish,“莱姆病的生物学和社会现象”,《科学》260:1610-16(1993年),以及Allan Steere,“莱姆症:对城市人口的日益增长的威胁”,《国家科学院刊》91:2378-83(1994年)

For the evolutionary relationships of human malarial parasites: Thomas McCutchan et al., “Evolutionary relatedness of Plasmodium species as determined by the structure of DNA,” Science 225:808–11 (1984), and A. P. Waters et al., “Plasmodium falciparum appears to have arisen as a result of lateral transfer between avian and human hosts,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 88:3140–44 (1991). For the evolutionary relationships of measles virus: E. Norrby et al., “Is rinderpest virus the archevirus of the Morbillivirus genus ” Intervirology 23:228–32 (1985), and Keith Murray et al., “A morbillivirus that caused fatal disease in horses and humans,” Science 268:94–97 (1995). For pertussis, also known as whooping cough: R. Gross et al., “Genetics of pertussis toxin,” Molecular Microbiology 3:119–24 (1989). For smallpox: Donald Hopkins, Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); F. Vogel and M. R. Chakravartti, “ABO blood groups and smallpox in a rural population of West Bengal and Bihar (India),” Human Genetics 3:166–80 (1966); and my article “A pox upon our genes,” Natural History 99(2): 26–30 (1990). For monkeypox, a disease related to smallpox: Zdenk Jeek and Frank Fenner, Human Monkeypox (Basel: Karger, 1988). For syphilis: Claude Quétel, History of Syphilis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990). For tuberculosis: Guy Youmans, Tuberculosis (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1979). For the claim that human tuberculosis was present in Native Americans before Columbus's arrival: in favor, Wilmar Salo et al., “Identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA in a pre-Columbian Peruvian mummy,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91:2091–94 (1994); opposed, William Stead et al., “When did Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection first occur in the New World ” American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine 151:1267–68 (1995).

关于人类疟原虫的进化关系:Thomas McCutchan等人,“由DNA结构决定的疟原虫物种的进化相关性”,《科学》225:808–11(1984),和A.P.Waters等人。,“恶性疟原虫似乎是由于鸟类和人类宿主之间的横向转移而产生的,”美国国家科学院学报88:3140–44(1991)。关于麻疹病毒的进化关系:E.Norrby等人,“牛瘟病毒是麻疹病毒属的原始病毒吗?”病毒学23:228–32(1985),以及Keith Murray等人,“一种导致马和人类致命疾病的麻疹病毒”,科学268:94–97(1995)。对于百日咳,也称为百日咳:R.Gross等人,“百日咳毒素的遗传学”,分子微生物学3:119–24(1989)。天花:唐纳德·霍普金斯,《王子与农民:历史上的天花》(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1983年);F、 Vogel和M.R.Chakravartti,“西孟加拉邦和比哈尔邦(印度)农村人口的ABO血型和天花”,人类遗传学3:166-80(1966);我的文章《基因上的痘》,自然史99(2):26-30(1990)。关于猴痘,一种与天花有关的疾病:Zdenk Jeek和Frank Fenner,《人类猴痘》(巴塞尔:Karger,1988)。梅毒:克劳德·奎特尔,《梅毒史》(巴尔的摩:约翰·霍普金斯大学出版社,1990年)。肺结核:盖伊·尤曼斯,《肺结核》(费城:桑德斯,1979年)。对于哥伦布到达之前美洲原住民中存在人类结核病的说法:Wilmar Salo等人表示赞同,“在哥伦布之前的秘鲁木乃伊中鉴定结核分枝杆菌DNA”,《国家科学院院刊》91:2091–94(1994);相反,William Stead等人,“结核分枝杆菌感染首次出现在新世界的时间”,美国呼吸重症监护医学杂志151:1267–68(1995)

Chapter 12

Books providing general accounts of writing and of particular writing systems include David Diringer, Writing (London: Thames and Hudson, 1982), I. J. Gelb, A Study of Writing, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), Geoffrey Sampson, Writing Systems (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), John DeFrancis, Visible Speech (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989), Wayne Senner, ed., The Origins of Writing (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991), and J. T. Hooker, ed., Reading the Past (London: British Museum Press, 1990). A comprehensive account of significant writing systems, with plates depicting texts in each system, is David Diringer, The Alphabet, 3rd ed., 2 vols. (London: Hutchinson, 1968). Jack Goody, The Domestication of the Savage Mind (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), and Robert Logan, The Alphabet Effect (New York: Morrow, 1986), discuss the impact of literacy in general and of the alphabet in particular. Uses of early writing are discussed by Nicholas Postgate et al., “The evidence for early writing: Utilitarian or ceremonial ” Antiquity 69:459–80 (1995).

提供写作和特定写作系统概述的书籍包括大卫·迪林格(David Diringer),《写作》(伦敦:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1982年),《写作研究》,第二版(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1963年),杰弗里·桑普森,《写作系统》(斯坦福:斯坦福大学出版社,1985年),约翰·德弗兰西斯,《可视语音》(檀香山:夏威夷大学出版社,1989年),韦恩·森纳(Wayne Senner),约翰·迪朗西斯(John DeFrancis)等,《写作的起源》(林肯:内布拉斯加州大学出版社,1991年)和《阅读过去》(伦敦:大英博物馆出版社,1990年)。大卫·迪林格(David Diringer)《字母表》,第三版,2卷,全面介绍了重要的书写系统,每个系统中都有描绘文字的图版。(伦敦:哈钦森,1968年)。杰克·古迪(Jack Goody)《野蛮思维的驯化》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1977年)和罗伯特·洛根(Robert Logan)《字母表效应》(纽约:莫罗,1986年)讨论了识字率的总体影响,特别是字母表的影响。Nicholas Postgate等人讨论了早期写作的用途,“早期写作的证据:实用性或仪式性”,古代69:459–80(1995)

Exciting accounts of decipherments of previously illegible scripts are given by Maurice Pope, The Story of Decipherment (London: Thames and Hudson, 1975), Michael Coe, Breaking the Maya Code (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992), John Chadwick, The Decipherment of Linear B (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), Yves Duhoux, Thomas Palaima, and John Bennet, eds., Problems in Decipherment (Louvain-la-Neuve: Peeters, 1989), and John Justeson and Terrence Kaufman, “A decipherment of epi-Olmec hieroglyphic writing,” Science 259:1703–11 (1993).

Maurice Pope、The Story of Decryption(伦敦:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1975年)、Michael Coe、Breaking The Maya Code(纽约:泰晤士河和哈德森河,1992年)、John Chadwick、The Decryping of Linear B(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1992年),Yves Duhoux、Thomas Palaima和John Bennet,eds。,破译中的问题(Louvain la Neuve:Peeters,1989),以及John Justeson和Terrence Kaufman,“epi-Olmec象形文字的破译”,科学259:1703–11(1993)

Denise Schmandt-Besserat's two-volume Before Writing (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992) presents her controversial reconstruction of the origins of Sumerian writing from clay tokens over the course of nearly 5,000 years. Hans Nissen et al., eds., Archaic Bookkeeping (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), describes Mesopotamian tablets that represent the earliest stages of cuneiform itself. Joseph Naveh, Early History of the Alphabet (Leiden: Brill, 1982), traces the emergence of alphabets in the eastern Mediterranean region. The remarkable Ugaritic alphabet is the subject of Gernot Windfuhr, “The cuneiform signs of Ugarit,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 29:48–51 (1970). Joyce Marcus, Mesoamerican Writing Systems: Propaganda, Myth, and History in Four Ancient Civilizations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), and Elizabeth Boone and Walter Mignolo, Writing without Words (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994), describe the development and uses of Mesoamerican writing systems. William Boltz, The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System (New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1994), and the same author's “Early Chinese writing,” World Archaeology 17:420–36 (1986), do the same for China. Finally, Janet Klausner, Sequoyah's Gift (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), is an account readable by children, but equally interesting to adults, of Sequoyah's development of the Cherokee syllabary.

Denise Schmandt Besserat的两卷《写作前》(奥斯汀:得克萨斯大学出版社,1992年)介绍了她在近5000年的时间里,用粘土代币重建苏美尔文字起源的争议。Hans Nissen et al.,eds.,Archaic Booking(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1994年)描述了美索不达米亚石板,代表楔形文字本身的最早阶段。约瑟夫·纳维(Joseph Naveh)《字母表的早期历史》(莱顿:布里尔,1982年)追溯了地中海东部地区字母表的出现。著名的乌加里特字母表是Gernot Windfuhr《乌加里特楔形符号》的主题,《近东研究杂志》29:48–51(1970)。乔伊斯·马库斯(Joyce Marcus),《中美洲书写系统:四大古代文明中的宣传、神话和历史》(普林斯顿:普林斯顿大学出版社,1992年)和伊丽莎白·布恩(Elizabeth Boone)和沃尔特·米诺洛(Walter Mignolo),《无文字书写》(达勒姆:杜克大学出版社,1994年),描述了中美洲书写体系的发展和使用。William Boltz,《中国书写系统的起源和早期发展》(纽黑文:美国东方学会,1994年)和同一作者的《早期中国书写》,《世界考古学》17:420–36(1986年),对中国也有同样的影响。最后,《红杉的礼物》(纽约:哈珀柯林斯,1993)中的珍妮特·克劳斯纳讲述了红杉对切诺基音节的发展,儿童可以阅读,但成年人也同样感兴趣。

Chapter 13

The standard detailed history of technology is the eight-volume A History of Technology, by Charles Singer et al. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1954–84). One-volume histories are Donald Cardwell, The Fontana History of Technology (London: Fontana Press, 1994), Arnold Pacey, Technology in World Civilization (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990), and Trevor Williams, The History of Invention (New York: Facts on File, 1987). R. A. Buchanan, The Power of the Machine (London: Penguin Books, 1994), is a short history of technology focusing on the centuries since A.D. 1700. Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), discusses why the rate of development of technology has varied with time and place. George Basalla, The Evolution of Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), presents an evolutionary view of technological change. Everett Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 3rd ed. (New York: Free Press, 1983), summarizes modern research on the transfer of innovations, including the QWERTY keyboard. David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), dissects the relative contributions of blueprint copying, idea diffusion (by espionage), and independent invention to the Soviet atomic bomb.

标准的详细技术史是查尔斯·辛格等人的八卷《技术史》(A history of technology)(牛津:克拉伦登出版社,1954-84年)。其中一卷是唐纳德·卡德韦尔(Donald Cardwell),《丰塔纳技术史》(伦敦:丰塔纳出版社,1994年)、《世界文明中的技术》(剑桥:麻省理工学院出版社,1990年)和特雷弗·威廉姆斯(Trevor Williams),《发明史》(纽约:档案事实,1987年)。R、 A.Buchanan,《机器的力量》(伦敦:企鹅图书出版社,1994年)是一部简短的技术史,重点讲述了自公元1700年以来的几个世纪。Joel Mokyr,《财富杠杆》(纽约:牛津大学出版社,1990年)讨论了为什么技术的发展速度随时间和地点而变化。乔治·巴萨拉,《技术的进化》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1988年),提出了技术变革的进化观点。Everett Rogers,《创新的传播》,第三版(纽约:自由出版社,1983年),总结了关于创新传播的现代研究,包括QWERTY键盘。戴维·霍洛威,《斯大林与原子弹》(纽黑文:耶鲁大学出版社,1994年),剖析了蓝图复制、思想传播(通过间谍)和独立发明对苏联原子弹的相对贡献。

Preeminent among regional accounts of technology is the series Science and Civilization in China, by Joseph Needham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), of which 5 volumes in 16 parts have appeared since 1954, with a dozen more parts on the way. Ahmad al-Hassan and Donald Hill, Islamic Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), and K. D. White, Greek and Roman Technology (London: Thames and Hudson, 1984), summarize technology's history for those cultures.

约瑟夫·李约瑟(Joseph Needham,剑桥:剑桥大学出版社)的《中国的科学与文明》(Science and Civilization in China)系列在地区科技报道中占据了突出地位,自1954年以来,该系列共有16个部分,共5卷,还有十几个部分正在编写中。艾哈迈德·哈桑和唐纳德·希尔,《伊斯兰技术》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1992年)和K.D.怀特《希腊和罗马技术》(伦敦:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1984年)总结了这些文化的技术历史。

Two conspicuous examples of somewhat isolated societies adopting and then abandoning technologies potentially useful in competition with other societies involve Japan's abandonment of firearms, after their adoption in A.D. 1543, and China's abandonment of its large oceangoing fleets after A.D. 1433. The former case is described by Noel Perrin, Giving Up the Gun (Boston: Hall, 1979), and the latter by Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994). An essay entitled “The disappearance of useful arts,” pp. 190–210 in W. H. B. Rivers, Psychology and Ethnology (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1926), gives similar examples among Pacific islanders.

有些孤立的社会采用并放弃可能有助于与其他社会竞争的技术的两个明显例子是,日本在公元1543年采用火器后放弃了火器,而中国在公元1433年后放弃了其大型远洋舰队。诺埃尔·佩林(Noel Perrin)描述了前一个案例,放弃了枪支(波士顿:霍尔,1979年),后者由路易丝·莱瓦提斯(Louise Levathes)创作,当时中国统治海洋(纽约:西蒙和舒斯特,1994)。《W.H.B.Rivers,心理学和民族学》(纽约:Harcourt,Brace,1926年)一篇题为“有用艺术的消失”的文章,第190-210页,在太平洋岛民中给出了类似的例子。

Articles on the history of technology will be found in the quarterly journal Technology and Culture, published by the Society for the History of Technology since 1959. John Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), analyzes the papers in its first twenty years.

关于技术史的文章将在《技术与文化》季刊中找到,该季刊自1959年以来由技术史学会出版。约翰·斯陶登迈尔,《技术的故事讲述者》(剑桥:麻省理工学院出版社,1985年)分析了该季刊头二十年的论文。

Specific fields providing material for those interested in the history of technology include electric power, textiles, and metallurgy. Thomas Hughes, Networks of Power (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), discusses the social, economic, political, and technical factors in the electrification of Western society from 1880 to 1930. Dava Sobel, Longitude (New York: Walker, 1995), describes the development of John Harrison's chronometers that solved the problem of determining longitude at sea. E. J. W. Barber, Prehistoric Textiles (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), sets out the history of cloth in Eurasia from its beginnings more than 9,000 years ago. Accounts of the history of metallurgy over wide regions or even over the world include Robert Maddin, The Beginning of the Use of Metals and Alloys (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988), Theodore Wertime and James Muhly, eds., The Coming of the Age of Iron (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980), R. D. Penhallurick, Tin in Antiquity (London: Institute of Metals, 1986), James Muhly, “Copper and Tin,” Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 43:155–535 (1973), and Alan Franklin, Jacqueline Olin, and Theodore Wertime, The Search for Ancient Tin (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1978). Accounts of metallurgy for local regions include R. F. Tylecote, The Early History of Metallurgy in Europe (London: Longman, 1987), and Donald Wagner, Iron and Steel in Ancient China (Leiden: Brill, 1993).

为那些对技术史感兴趣的人提供材料的特定领域包括电力、纺织和冶金。托马斯·休斯,《权力网络》(巴尔的摩:约翰·霍普金斯大学出版社,1983年)讨论了1880年至1930年西方社会电气化过程中的社会、经济、政治和技术因素。达瓦·索贝尔,《经度》(纽约:沃克,1995年)描述了约翰·哈里森的计时器的发展,解决了海上经度测定问题。E、 J.W.Barber,《史前纺织品》(普林斯顿:普林斯顿大学出版社,1991年)阐述了欧亚大陆布料从9000多年前开始的历史。对广泛地区甚至全世界冶金史的描述包括罗伯特·马丁(Robert Maddin),《金属和合金使用的开始》(剑桥:麻省理工学院出版社,1988年),西奥多·沃泰姆(Theodore Wertime)和詹姆斯·穆利(James Muhly),编辑,《铁的时代的到来》(纽黑文:耶鲁大学出版社,1980年),R.D.彭哈勒里克(R.D.Penhallurick),《古代锡》(伦敦:金属研究所,1986年),詹姆斯·穆勒(James Mushly),“铜和锡”,《康涅狄格州艺术与科学学院学报》43:155–535(1973),艾伦·富兰克林、杰奎琳·奥林和西奥多·沃泰姆,《寻找古代锡》(华盛顿特区:史密森学会出版社,1978年)。关于局部地区冶金的描述包括R.F.Tylecote,《欧洲早期冶金史》(伦敦:朗曼,1987年)和唐纳德·瓦格纳《古代中国的钢铁》(莱登:布里尔,1993年)

Chapter 14

The fourfold classification of human societies into bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states owes much to two books by Elman Service: Primitive Social Organization (New York: Random House, 1962) and Origins of the State and Civilization (New York: Norton, 1975). A related classification of societies, using different terminology, is Morton Fried, The Evolution of Political Society (New York: Random House, 1967). Three important review articles on the evolution of states and societies are Kent Flannery, “The cultural evolution of civilizations,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematic 3:399–426 (1972), the same author's “Prehistoric social evolution,” pp. 1–26 in Carol and Melvin Ember, eds., Research Frontiers in Anthropology (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1995), and Henry Wright, “Recent research on the origin of the state,” Annual Review of Anthropology 6:379–97 (1977). Robert Carneiro, “A theory of the origin of the state,” Science 169:733–38 (1970), argues that states arise through warfare under conditions in which land is ecologically limiting. Karl Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957), relates state origins to large-scale irrigation and hydraulic management. Three essays in On the Evolution of Complex Societies, by William Sanders, Henry Wright, and Robert Adams (Malibu: Undena, 1984), present differing views of state origins, while Robert Adams, The Evolution of Urban Society (Chicago: Aldine, 1966), contrasts state origins in Mesopotamia and Mesoamerica.

将人类社会分为部落、部落、酋长领地和州的四重分类在很大程度上要归功于Elman Service的两本书:《原始社会组织》(纽约:兰登书屋,1962年)和《国家和文明的起源》(纽约:诺顿,1975年)。莫顿·弗里德(Morton Fried)《政治社会的演变》(纽约:兰登书屋,1967年)使用不同的术语对社会进行了相关分类。关于国家和社会演变的三篇重要评论文章是肯特·弗兰纳里的《文明的文化演变》,《生态学和系统年鉴》3:399-426(1972年),同一作者的《史前社会演变》,卡罗尔和梅尔文·恩伯主编,人类学前沿研究(恩格尔伍德悬崖:普伦蒂斯大厅,1995年),以及亨利·赖特,“关于国家起源的最新研究”,《人类学年鉴》6:379-97(1977)。罗伯特·卡内罗(Robert Carneiro),《科学》169:733–38(1970年),“国家起源理论”认为,国家是在土地生态受限的条件下通过战争产生的。卡尔·维特福格尔,《东方专制主义》(纽黑文:耶鲁大学出版社,1957年),将国家起源与大规模灌溉和水力管理联系起来。威廉·桑德斯(William Sanders)、亨利·赖特(Henry Wright)和罗伯特·亚当斯(Robert Adams)在《复杂社会的演变》(the Evolution of Complex Societies)一书中发表了三篇论文(Malibu:Undena,1984年),提出了不同的国家起源观点,而罗伯特·亚当斯(RobertAdams)《城市社会的演变》一书(芝加哥:阿尔丁,1966年)则对比了美索不达。

Among studies of the evolution of societies in specific parts of the world, sources for Mesopotamia include Robert Adams, Heartland of Cities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), and J. N. Postgate, Early Mesopotamia (London: Routledge, 1992); for Mesoamerica, Richard Blanton et al., Ancient Mesoamerica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), and Joyce Marcus and Kent Flannery, Zapotec Civilization (London: Thames and Hudson, 1996); for the Andes, Richard Burger, Chavin and the Origins of Andean Civilization (New York, Thames and Hudson, 1992), and Jonathan Haas et al., eds., The Origins and Development of the Andean State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); for American chiefdoms, Robert Drennan and Carlos Uribe, eds., Chiefdoms in the Americas (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1987); for Polynesian societies, the books cited under Chapter 2; and for the Zulu state, Donald Morris, The Washing of the Spears (London: Jonathan Cape, 1966).

在对世界特定地区社会演变的研究中,美索不达米亚的资料来源包括《城市的中心地带》(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1981年)的罗伯特·亚当斯和《美索不达米亚早期》的J.N.Postgate(伦敦:劳特利奇,1992年);中美洲,Richard Blanton等人,《古代中美洲》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1981年),Joyce Marcus和Kent Flannery,《扎波泰克文明》(伦敦:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1996年);《安第斯山脉、理查德·伯格、查文和安第斯文明的起源》(纽约、泰晤士河和哈德逊,1992年),以及乔纳森·哈斯等人主编的《安第斯国家的起源和发展》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1987年);关于美国酋长领地,罗伯特·德伦南和卡洛斯·乌里韦主编,《美洲酋长领地》(医学博士兰厄姆:美国大学出版社,1987年);对于波利尼西亚社会,第2章引用的书籍;对于祖鲁州,唐纳德·莫里斯(Donald Morris)的《长矛的清洗》(伦敦:乔纳森·凯普,1966年)

Chapter 15

Books covering the prehistory of both Australia and New Guinea include Alan Thorne and Robert Raymond, Man on the Rim: The Peopling of the Pacific (North Ryde: Angus and Robertson, 1989), J. Peter White and James O'Connell, A Prehistory of Australia, New Guinea, and Sahul (Sydney: Academic Press, 1982), Jim Allen et al., eds., Sunda and Sahul (London: Academic Press, 1977), M. A. Smith et al., eds., Sahul in Review (Canberra: Australian National University, 1993), and Tim Flannery, The Future Eaters (New York: Braziller, 1995). The first and third of these books discuss the prehistory of island Southeast Asia as well. A recent account of the history of Australia itself is Josephine Flood, Archaeology of the Dreamtime, rev. ed. (Sydney: Collins, 1989). Some additional key papers on Australian prehistory are Rhys Jones, “The fifth continent: Problems concerning the human colonization of Australia,” Annual Reviews of Anthropology 8:445–66 (1979), Richard Roberts et al., “Thermoluminescence dating of a 50,000-year-old human occupation site in northern Australia,” Nature 345:153–56 (1990), and Jim Allen and Simon Holdaway, “The contamination of Pleistocene radiocarbon determinations in Australia,” Antiquity 69:101–12 (1995). Robert Attenborough and Michael Alpers, eds., Human Biology in Papua New Guinea (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), summarizes New Guinea archaeology as well as languages and genetics.

涵盖澳大利亚和新几内亚史前史的书籍包括艾伦·索恩(Alan Thorne)和罗伯特·雷蒙德(Robert Raymond),《边缘人:太平洋的居民》(北莱德:安格斯和罗伯逊,1989年)、《澳大利亚、新几内亚和萨胡尔史前史》(悉尼:学术出版社,1982年)、《吉姆·艾伦(Jim Allen)等人,编辑》,《圣代和萨胡勒》(伦敦:学术出版社1977年),M.A.史密斯等人。,编辑,《萨胡尔评论》(堪培拉:澳大利亚国立大学,1993年)和蒂姆·弗兰纳里,《未来食客》(纽约:巴西勒,1995年)。这些书中的第一本和第三本也讨论了东南亚岛屿的史前史。最近关于澳大利亚历史的一篇报道是约瑟芬·弗劳德,《梦想时间的考古学》,修订版(悉尼:柯林斯,1989)。关于澳大利亚史前史的其他一些关键论文有Rhys Jones,“第五大洲:关于澳大利亚人类殖民的问题”,《人类学年鉴》8:445-66(1979年),Richard Roberts等人,“澳大利亚北部50000年前人类占领地的热释光年代测定”,《自然》345:153-56(1990年),以及Jim Allen和Simon Holdaway,“澳大利亚更新世放射性碳测定的污染”,《古代》69:101–12(1995)。Robert Attenborough和Michael Alpers主编,《巴布亚新几内亚的人类生物学》(牛津:克拉伦登出版社,1992年),总结了新几内亚考古学以及语言和遗传学。

As for the prehistory of Northern Melanesia (the Bismarck and Solomon Archipelagoes, northeast and east of New Guinea), discussion will be found in the above-cited books by Thorne and Raymond, Flannery, and Allen et al. Papers pushing back the dates for the earliest occupation of Northern Melanesia include Stephen Wickler and Matthew Spriggs, “Pleistocene human occupation of the Solomon Islands, Melanesia,” Antiquity 62:703–6 (1988), Jim Allen et al., “Pleistocene dates for the human occupation of New Ireland, Northern Melanesia,” Nature 331:707–9 (1988), Jim Allen et al., “Human Pleistocene adaptations in the tropical island Pacific: Recent evidence from New Ireland, a Greater Australian outlier,” Antiquity 63:548–61 (1989), and Christina Pavlides and Chris Gosden, “35,000-year-old sites in the rainforests of West New Britain, Papua New Guinea,” Antiquity 68:604–10 (1994). References to the Austronesian expansion around the coast of New Guinea will be found under further readings for Chapter 17.

至于美拉尼西亚北部(新几内亚东北部和东部的俾斯麦群岛和所罗门群岛)的史前史,索恩和雷蒙德、弗兰纳里和艾伦等人的上述著作将对此进行讨论,“美拉尼西亚所罗门群岛的更新世人类占领”,古物62:703-6(1988),吉姆·艾伦等人,“新爱尔兰、北美拉尼西亚的更新世人类占领日期”,自然331:707-9(1988),Jim Allen等人。,“太平洋热带岛屿上的人类更新世适应:来自新爱尔兰的最新证据,一个更大的澳大利亚局外人,”Antiquity 63:548-61(1989),以及Christina Pavlides和Chris Gosden,“巴布亚新几内亚新不列颠西部雨林中35000年前的遗址”,Antiquity68:604-10(1994)。关于新几内亚海岸周围的南岛扩张的参考资料将在第17章的进一步阅读中找到。

Two books on the history of Australia after European colonization are Robert Hughes, The Fatal Shore (New York: Knopf, 1987), and Michael Cannon, The Exploration of Australia (Sydney: Reader's Digest, 1987). Aboriginal Australians themselves are the subject of Richard Broome, Aboriginal Australians (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1982), and Henry Reynolds, Frontier (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1987). An incredibly detailed history of New Guinea, from the earliest written records until 1902, is the three-volume work by Arthur Wichmann, Entdeckungs-geschichte von Neu-Guinea (Leiden: Brill, 1909–12). A shorter and more readable account is Gavin Souter, New Guinea: The Last Unknown (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1964). Bob Connolly and Robin Anderson, First Contact (New York: Viking, 1987), movingly describes the first encounters of highland New Guineans with Europeans.

两本关于欧洲殖民后澳大利亚历史的书是罗伯特·休斯《致命的海岸》(纽约:克诺夫,1987年)和迈克尔·坎农《澳大利亚的探索》(悉尼:读者文摘,1987年)。澳大利亚土著人本身就是理查德·布鲁姆(Richard Broome),《澳大利亚土著人》(悉尼:艾伦和安文,1982年)和亨利·雷诺兹(Henry Reynolds,Frontier)(悉尼:艾伦与安文,1987年)的主题。从最早的书面记录到1902年,一部极其详细的新几内亚历史是由Arthur Wichmann、Entdeckungs geschichte von Neu几内亚(莱顿:Brill,1909-12)撰写的三卷本著作。一个简短易读的叙述是《新几内亚的加文·苏特:最后的未知》(悉尼:安格斯和罗伯逊,1964年)。鲍勃·康诺利和罗宾·安德森,《第一次接触》(纽约:维京人,1987年),生动地描述了高地新几内亚人与欧洲人的第一次相遇。

For detailed accounts of New Guinea's Papuan (i.e., non-Austronesian) languages, see Stephen Wurm, Papuan Languages of Oceania (Tübingen: Guntet Narr, 1982), and William Foley, The Papuan Languages of New Guinea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); and of Australian languages, see Stephen Wurm, Languages of Australia and Tasmania (The Hague: Mouton, 1972), and R. M. W. Dixon, The Languages of Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).

有关新几内亚巴布亚语(即非南岛语)的详细说明,请参见斯蒂芬·乌尔姆(Stephen Wurm),《大洋洲巴布亚语》(Tübingen:Guntet Narr,1982年)和威廉·福利(William Foley),《新几内亚巴布亚语》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1986年);关于澳大利亚语言,见斯蒂芬·伍姆,《澳大利亚和塔斯马尼亚的语言》(海牙:莫顿,1972年)和R.M.W.迪克森,《澳大利亚的语言》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1980年)

An entrance into the literature on plant domestication and origins of food production in New Guinea can be found in Jack Golson, “Bulmer phase II: Early agriculture in the New Guinea highlands,” pp. 484–91 in Andrew Pawley, ed., Man and a Half (Auckland: Polynesian Society, 1991), and D. E. Yen, “Polynesian cultigens and cultivars: The question of origin,” pp. 67–95 in Paul Cox and Sandra Banack, eds., Islands, Plants, and Polynesians (Portland: Dioscorides Press, 1991).

有关新几内亚植物驯化和食品生产起源的文献,可以在Jack Golson,“Bulmer第二阶段:新几内亚高地的早期农业”,Andrew Pawley编辑的第484-91页,《人与半》(奥克兰:波利尼西亚社会,1991年)和D.E.Yen,“波利尼西亚文化和品种:起源问题”,保罗·考克斯和桑德拉·巴纳克编辑的《岛屿、植物和波利尼西亚人》第67-95页(波特兰:迪奥斯科里德出版社,1991年)

Numerous articles and books are devoted to the fascinating problem of why trading visits of Indonesians and of Torres Strait islanders to Australia produced only limited cultural change. C. C. Macknight, “Macassans and Aborigines,” Oceania 42:283–321 (1972), discusses the Macassan visits, while D. Walker, ed., Bridge and Barrier: The Natural and Cultural History of Torres Strait (Canberra: Australian National University, 1972), discusses connections at Torres Strait. Both connections are also discussed in the above-cited books by Flood, White and O'Connell, and Allen et al.

许多文章和书籍都致力于探讨为什么印度尼西亚人和托雷斯海峡岛民对澳大利亚的贸易访问只产生了有限的文化变化这一迷人的问题。C、 C.Macknight,“马卡桑人和土著人”,大洋洲42:283–321(1972),讨论了马卡桑的访问,而D.Walker,ed.,Bridge and Barrier:the Natural and Cultural History of Torres Strait(堪培拉:澳大利亚国立大学,1972)讨论了托雷斯海峡的联系。以上引用的Flood、White和O'Connell以及Allen等人的书中也讨论了这两种联系。

Early eyewitness accounts of the Tasmanians are reprinted in N. J. B. Plomley, The Baudin Expedition and the Tasmanian Aborigines 1802 (Hobart: Blubber Head Press, 1983), N. J. B. Plomley, Friendly Mission: The Tasmanian Journals and Papers of George Augustus Robinson, 1829–1834 (Hobart: Tasmanian Historical Research Association, 1966), and Edward Duyker, The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janszoon Tasman and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne, 1642 and 1772 (Hobart: St. David's Park Publishing, 1992). Papers debating the effects of isolation on Tasmanian society include Rhys Jones, “The Tasmanian Paradox,” pp. 189–284 in R. V. S. Wright, ed., Stone Tools as Cultural Markers (Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, 1977); Rhys Jones, “Why did the Tasmanians stop eating fish ” pp. 11–48 in R. Gould, ed., Explorations in Ethnoarchaeology (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1978); D. R. Horton, “Tasmanian adaptation,” Mankind 12:28–34 (1979); I. Walters, “Why did the Tasmanians stop eating fish : A theoretical consideration,” Artefact 6:71–77 (1981); and Rhys Jones, “Tasmanian Archaeology,” Annual Reviews of Anthropology 24:423–46 (1995). Results of Robin Sim's archaeological excavations on Flinders Island are described in her article “Prehistoric human occupation on the King and Furneaux Island regions, Bass Strait,” pp. 358–74 in Marjorie Sullivan et al., eds., Archaeology in the North (Darwin: North Australia Research Unit, 1994).

早期目击者对塔斯马尼亚人的描述在N.J.B.Plomley,《1802年波登探险队和塔斯马尼亚土著人》(霍巴特:Blubber Head出版社,1983年),N.J.B.Plumley,《友好使命:1829-1834年乔治·奥古斯都·鲁滨逊的塔斯马尼安期刊和论文》(霍伯特:塔斯马尼亚历史研究协会,1966年)和爱德华·杜克(Edward Duyker,塔斯马尼亚岛的发现:亚伯·扬松·塔斯曼和马克·约瑟夫·马里恩·杜弗雷斯内探险的期刊节选,1642年和1772年(霍巴特:圣大卫公园出版社,1992年)。辩论隔离对塔斯马尼亚社会影响的论文包括Rhys Jones,“塔斯马尼亚悖论”,R.V.S.Wright主编,第189-284页,《石器作为文化标志》(堪培拉:澳大利亚土著研究所,1977年);里斯·琼斯,“塔斯马尼亚人为什么不吃鱼”,R.古尔德主编,《民族进化的探索》(阿尔伯克基:新墨西哥大学出版社,1978年),第11-48页;D、 R.Horton,“塔斯马尼亚适应”,人类12:28-34(1979年);一、 沃尔特斯,“塔斯马尼亚人为什么停止吃鱼:一个理论思考”,人工制品6:71-77(1981);Rhys Jones,“塔斯马尼亚考古学”,人类学年度评论24:423-46(1995)。罗宾·西姆在弗林德斯岛的考古发掘结果在她的文章《巴斯海峡国王岛和弗尔诺岛地区的史前人类占领》(Marjorie Sullivan et al.,eds.,Archaeology in the North Australia Research Unit,1994)中有描述。

Chapters 16 and 17

Relevant readings cited under previous chapters include those on East Asian food production (Chapters 4–10), Chinese writing (Chapter 12), Chinese technology (Chapter 13), and New Guinea and the Bismarcks and Solomons in general (Chapter 15). James Matisoff, “Sino-Tibetan linguistics: Present state and future prospects,” Annual Reviews of Anthropology 20:469–504 (1991), reviews Sino-Tibetan languages and their wider relationships. Takeru Akazawa and Emoke Szathmáry, eds., Prehistoric Mongoloid Dispersals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), and Dennis Etler, “Recent developments in the study of human biology in China: A review,” Human Biology 64:567–85 (1992), discuss evidence of Chinese or East Asian relationships and dispersal. Alan Thorne and Robert Raymond, Man on the Rim (North Ryde: Angus and Robertson, 1989), describes the archaeology, history, and culture of Pacific peoples, including East Asians and Pacific islanders. Adrian Hill and Susan Serjeantson, eds., The Colonization of the Pacific: A Genetic Trail (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), interprets the genetics of Pacific islanders, Aboriginal Australians, and New Guineans in terms of their inferred colonization routes and histories. Evidence based on tooth structure is interpreted by Christy Turner III, “Late Pleistocene and Holocene population history of East Asia based on dental variation,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 73:305–21 (1987), and “Teeth and prehistory in Asia,” Scientific American 260 (2): 88–96 (1989).

前几章引用的重要阅读资料包括东亚食品生产(第4-10章)、中文写作(第12章)、中国技术(第13章)以及新几内亚、俾斯麦和所罗门群岛(第15章)。詹姆斯·马蒂索夫,“汉藏语言学:现状和未来前景”,《人类学年评》20:469-504(1991),回顾了汉藏语言及其更广泛的关系。Akazawa Takeru和Emoke Szahmáry主编,《史前蒙古人的扩散》(牛津:牛津大学出版社,1996年)和Dennis Etler,“中国人类生物学研究的最新进展:综述”,人类生物学64:567–85(1992年),讨论了中国或东亚关系和扩散的证据。《边缘人》(North Ryde:Angus and Robertson,1989)中的艾伦·索恩(Alan Thorne)和罗伯特·雷蒙德(Robert Raymond)描述了包括东亚人和太平洋岛民在内的太平洋民族的考古学、历史和文化。Adrian Hill和Susan Serjeantson编辑的《太平洋的殖民:基因轨迹》(牛津:克拉伦登出版社,1989年),根据推断的殖民路线和历史解释了太平洋岛民、澳大利亚原住民和新几内亚人的遗传学。Christy Turner III解释了基于牙齿结构的证据,《基于牙齿变异的东亚晚更新世和全新世人口史》,《美国体质人类学杂志》73:305-21(1987年)和《亚洲的牙齿和史前史》,《科学美国人》260(2):88-96(1989年)

Among regional accounts of archaeology, China is covered by Kwangchih Chang, The Archaeology of Ancient China, 4th ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), David Keightley, ed., The Origins of Chinese Civilization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), and David Keightley, “Archaeology and mentality: The making of China,” Representations 18:91–128 (1987). Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973), examines China's history since its political unification. Convenient archaeological accounts of Southeast Asia include Charles Higham, The Archaeology of Mainland Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); for Korea, Sarah Nelson, The Archaeology of Korea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); for Indonesia, the Philippines, and tropical Southeast Asia, Peter Bellwood, Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago (Sydney: Academic Press, 1985); for peninsular Malaysia, Peter Bellwood, “Cultural and biological differentiation in Peninsular Malaysia: The last 10,000 years,” Asian Perspectives 32:37–60 (1993); for the Indian subcontinent, Bridget and Raymond Allchin, The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); for Island Southeast Asia and the Pacific with special emphasis on Lapita, a series of five articles in Antiquity 63:547–626 (1989) and Patrick Kirch, The Lapita Peoples: Ancestors of the Oceanic World (London: Basil Blackwell, 1996); and for the Austronesian expansion as a whole, Andrew Pawley and Malcolm Ross, “Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history,” Annual Reviews of Anthropology 22:425–59 (1993), and Peter Bellwood et al., The Austronesians: Comparative and Historical Perspectives (Canberra: Australian National University, 1995).

在考古学的区域性报道中,中国被张光智《古代中国考古学》第四版(纽黑文:耶鲁大学出版社,1987年)、戴维·凯特利《中华文明的起源》(伯克利:加利福尼亚大学出版社,1983年)和戴维·凯特里《考古学与心理:中国的形成》(1987年)所涵盖。马克·艾文的《中国过去的模式》(斯坦福:斯坦福大学出版社,1973年)审视了中国自政治统一以来的历史。方便的东南亚考古记录包括Charles Higham,《东南亚大陆考古学》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1989年);对于韩国,莎拉·纳尔逊,《韩国考古学》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1993年);为印度尼西亚、菲律宾和热带东南亚撰写的彼得·贝尔伍德,《印度-马来西亚群岛的史前史》(悉尼:学术出版社,1985年);对于马来西亚半岛,Peter Bellwood,“马来西亚半岛的文化和生物分化:过去10000年”,亚洲视角32:37-60(1993);关于印度次大陆,布里奇特和雷蒙德·奥尔钦,《印度和巴基斯坦文明的崛起》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1982年);对于东南亚和太平洋岛屿,特别强调拉皮塔,古代63:547–626(1989)和Patrick Kirch的五篇系列文章,《拉皮塔人:海洋世界的祖先》(伦敦:Basil Blackwell,1996);对于整个南岛语的扩展,安德鲁·帕利和马尔科姆·罗斯,《南岛语历史语言学和文化史》,《人类学年鉴》22:425–59(1993年),彼得·贝尔伍德等人,《南岛人:比较和历史视角》(堪培拉:澳大利亚国立大学,1995年)

Geoffrey Irwin, The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonization of the Pacific (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), is an account of Polynesian voyaging, navigation, and colonization. The dating of the settlement of New Zealand and eastern Polynesia is debated by Atholl Anderson, “The chronology of colonization in New Zealand,” Antiquity 65:767–95 (1991), and “Current approaches in East Polynesian colonisation research,” Journal of the Polynesian Society 104:110–32 (1995), and Patrick Kirch and Joanna Ellison, “Palaeoenvironmental evidence for human colonization of remote Oceanic islands,” Antiquity 68:310–21 (1994).

杰弗里·欧文(Geoffrey Irwin)《太平洋的史前探索和殖民》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1992年),是波利尼西亚航行、导航和殖民的记述。阿索尔·安德森(Atholl Anderson),《新西兰殖民年表》,《古代》65:767-95(1991年)和《东波利尼西亚殖民研究的当前方法》,《波利尼西亚社会杂志》104:110-32(1995年),以及帕特里克·基奇和乔安娜·埃利森(Patrick Kirch and Joanna Ellison)对新西兰和东波利尼撒殖民地的年代进行了辩论,“人类在偏远海洋岛屿殖民的古环境证据”,《古代》68:310-21(1994)

Chapter 18

Many relevant further readings for this chapter will be found listed under those for other chapters: under Chapter 3 for the conquests of the Incas and Aztecs, Chapters 4–10 for plant and animal domestication, Chapter 11 for infectious diseases, Chapter 12 for writing, Chapter 13 for technology, Chapter 14 for political institutions, and Chapter 16 for China. Convenient worldwide comparisons of dates for the onset of food production will be found in Bruce Smith, The Emergence of Agriculture (New York: Scientific American Library, 1995).

本章的许多相关后续读物将列在其他章节的读物下:关于印加人和阿兹特克人征服的第3章,关于植物和动物驯化的第4-10章,关于传染病的第11章,关于写作的第12章,关于技术的第13章,关于政治机构的第14章,以及关于中国的第16章。在Bruce Smith的《农业的出现》(纽约:美国科学图书馆,1995年)一书中可以找到世界范围内食品生产开始日期的方便比较。

Some discussions of the historical trajectories summarized in Table 18.1, other than references given under previous chapters, are as follows. For England: Timothy Darvill, Prehistoric Britain (London: Batsford, 1987). For the Andes: Jonathan Haas et al., The Origins and Development of the Andean State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Michael Moseley, The Incas and Their Ancestors (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992); and Richard Burger, Chavin and the Origins of Andean Civilization (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992). For Amazonia: Anna Roosevelt, Parmana (New York: Academic Press, 1980), and Anna Roosevelt et al., “Eighth millennium pottery from a prehistoric shell midden in the Brazilian Amazon,” Science 254:1621–24 (1991). For Mesoamerica: Michael Coe, Mexico, 3rd ed. (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1984), and Michael Coe, The Maya, 3rd ed. (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1984). For the eastern United States: Vincas Steponaitis, “Prehistoric archaeology in the southeastern United States, 1970–1985,” Annual Reviews of Anthropology 15:363–404 (1986); Bruce Smith, “The archaeology of the southeastern United States: From Dalton to de Soto, 10,500–500 B.P.,” Advances in World Archaeology 5:1–92 (1986); William Keegan, ed., Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 1987); Bruce Smith, “Origins of agriculture in eastern North America,” Science 246:1566–71 (1989); Bruce Smith, The Mississippian Emergence (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990); and Judith Bense, Archaeology of the Southeastern United States (San Diego: Academic Press, 1994). A compact reference on Native Americans of North America is Philip Kopper, The Smithsonian Book of North American Indians before the Coming of the Europeans (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1986). Bruce Smith, “The origins of agriculture in the Americas,” Evolutionary Anthropology 3:174–84 (1995), discusses the controversy over early versus late dates for the onset of New World food production.

表18.1中总结的历史轨迹的一些讨论,除前几章中给出的参考文献外,如下所示。英格兰:蒂莫西·达维尔,《史前英国》(伦敦:巴特斯福德,1987)。安第斯山脉:乔纳森·哈斯等人,《安第斯国家的起源和发展》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1987年);迈克尔·莫斯利,《印加人及其祖先》(纽约:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1992年);理查德·伯格、查文和安第斯文明的起源(纽约:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1992年)。亚马逊河流域:安娜·罗斯福、帕玛纳(纽约:学术出版社,1980年)和安娜·罗斯福等人,“巴西亚马逊流域史前贝壳中的第八个千年陶器”,《科学》254:1621-24(1991年)。中美洲:迈克尔·科,墨西哥,第三版(纽约:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1984年),迈克尔·科,《玛雅河》,第三版。美国东部:Vincas Steponaitis,“美国东南部的史前考古学,1970-1985”,人类学年度评论15:363-404(1986);布鲁斯·史密斯,“美国东南部的考古学:从道尔顿到德索托,公元前10500-500年”,世界考古学进展5:1-92(1986);威廉·基根主编,《东部林地的新兴园艺经济》(卡本代尔:南伊利诺伊大学,1987年);布鲁斯·史密斯,“北美东部农业的起源”,《科学》246:1566-71(1989);布鲁斯·史密斯,《密西西比崛起》(华盛顿特区:史密森学会出版社,1990);Judith Bense,《美国东南部考古学》(圣地亚哥:学术出版社,1994年)。关于北美土著美国人的紧凑参考文献是菲利普·科珀(Philip Kopper),《欧洲人到来之前的北美印第安人史密森书》(华盛顿特区:史密森学会出版社,1986年)。布鲁斯·史密斯,“美洲农业的起源”,进化人类学3:174–84(1995),讨论了新世界粮食生产开始的早期与晚期之间的争议。

Anyone inclined to believe that New World food production and societies were limited by the culture or psychology of Native Americans themselves, rather than by limitations of the wild species available to them for domestication, should consult three accounts of the transformation of Great Plains Indian societies by the arrival of the horse: Frank Row, The Indian and the Horse (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1955), John Ewers, The Blackfeet: Raiders on the Northwestern Plains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1958), and Ernest Wallace and E. Adamson Hoebel, The Comanches: Lords of the South Plains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986).

任何人倾向于相信新世界的粮食生产和社会受到美洲原住民自身文化或心理的限制,而不是他们可以驯化的野生物种的限制,都应该参考三个关于马到来后大平原印度社会转型的描述:弗兰克·罗,《印第安人与马》(诺曼:俄克拉荷马大学出版社,1955年)、《约翰·埃沃斯》、《黑脚:西北平原上的袭击者》(诺尔曼:俄克拉荷马大学出版社(1958年)),以及《科曼奇人:南平原的领主》(诺曼∶俄克拉荷玛大学出版社,1986年)

Among discussions of the spread of language families in relation to the rise of food production, a classic account for Europe is Albert Ammerman and L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, The Neolithic Transition and the Genetics of Populations in Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), while Peter Bellwood, “The Austronesian dispersal and the origin of languages,” Scientific American 265(1): 88–93 (1991), does the same for the Austronesian realm. Studies citing examples from around the world are the two books by L. L. Cavalli-Sforza et al. and the book by Merritt Ruhlen cited as further readings for the Prologue. Two books with diametrically opposed interpretations of the Indo-European expansion provide entrances into that controversial literature: Colin Renfrew, Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), and J. P. Mallory, In Search of the Indo-Europeans (London: Thames and Hudson, 1989). Sources on the Russian expansion across Siberia are George Lantzeff and Richard Pierce, Eastward to Empire (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1973), and W. Bruce Lincoln, The Conquest of a Continent (New York: Random House, 1994).

在关于语言家族的传播与粮食生产的兴起的讨论中,阿尔伯特·阿默曼和L.L.卡瓦利·斯福尔扎是欧洲的一个经典解释,即新石器时代的变迁和欧洲人口遗传学(普林斯顿:普林斯顿大学出版社,1984年),而彼得·贝尔伍德(Peter Bellwood,《科学美国人》265(1):88–93(1991),《南岛语的传播和语言的起源》对南岛语领域也做了同样的研究。引用世界各地实例的研究包括L.L.Cavalli Sforza等人的两本书和Merritt Ruhlen的书,作为序言的进一步阅读。两本对印欧扩张的解释截然相反的书为这一有争议的文献提供了入口:科林·伦弗罗,《考古学和语言:印欧起源之谜》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1987年)和J·P·马洛里《寻找印欧人》(伦敦:泰晤士河和哈德逊河,1989年)。关于俄罗斯在西伯利亚的扩张的资料来源是乔治·兰茨夫和理查德·皮尔斯《向东到帝国》(蒙特利尔:麦吉尔皇后大学出版社,1973年)和W·布鲁斯·林肯《征服一个大陆》(纽约:兰登书屋,1994年)

As for Native American languages, the majority view that recognizes many separate language families is exemplified by Lyle Campbell and Marianne Mithun, The Languages of Native America (Austin: University of Texas, 1979). The opposing view, lumping all Native American languages other than Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dene languages into the Amerind family, is presented by Joseph Greenberg, Language in the Americas (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987), and Merritt Ruhlen, A Guide to the World's Languages, vol. 1 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987).

至于美洲土著语言,大多数人认为有许多不同的语系,例如莱尔·坎贝尔(Lyle Campbell)和玛丽安·米顿(Marianne Mithun),这是美洲土著语言(奥斯汀:德克萨斯大学,1979年)。相反的观点,将除爱斯基摩语、阿留申语和纳德纳语之外的所有美洲土著语言归为美洲语系,由约瑟夫·格林伯格(Joseph Greenberg)《美洲语言》(斯坦福:斯坦福大学出版社,1987年)和梅里特·鲁伦(Merritt Ruhlen)《世界语言指南》,第一卷(斯坦福:斯坦福本科出版社,1987)提出。

Standard accounts of the origin and spread of the wheel for transport in Eurasia are M. A. Littauer and J. H. Crouwel, Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden Animals in the Ancient Near East (Leiden: Brill, 1979), and Stuart Piggott, The Earliest Wheeled Transport (London: Thames and Hudson, 1983).

关于欧亚大陆运输轮的起源和传播的标准描述是M.A.利托和J.H.克劳威尔,《古代近东的轮式车辆和骑着的动物》(莱顿:布里尔,1979年)和斯图尔特·皮戈特,《最早的轮式运输》(伦敦:泰晤士河和哈德逊,1983年)

Books on the rise and demise of the Norse colonies in Greenland and America include Finn Gad, The History of Greenland, vol. 1 (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1971), G. J. Marcus, The Conquest of the North Atlantic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), Gwyn Jones, The Norse Atlantic Saga, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), and Christopher Morris and D. James Rackham, eds., Norse and Later Settlement and Subsistence in the North Atlantic (Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 1992). Two volumes by Samuel Eliot Morison provide masterly accounts of early European voyaging to the New World: The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages, A.D. 500–1600 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971) and The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages, A.D. 1492–1616 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974). The beginnings of Europe's overseas expansion are treated by Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonization from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, 1229–1492 (London: Macmillan Education, 1987). Not to be missed is Columbus's own day-by-day account of history's most famous voyage, reprinted as Oliver Dunn and James Kelley, Jr., The Diario of Christopher Columbus's First Voyage to America, 1492–1493 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989).

关于格陵兰岛和美洲的北欧殖民地的兴起和消亡的书籍包括:芬恩·加德,《格陵兰历史》,第一卷(蒙特利尔:麦吉尔皇后大学出版社,1971年),G·J·马库斯,《征服北大西洋》(纽约:牛津大学出版社,1981年),格温·琼斯,《挪威大西洋传奇》,第二版(纽约:牛津本科出版社,1986年),克里斯托弗·莫里斯和D。James Rackham编辑,挪威语和后来在北大西洋的定居和生存(格拉斯哥:格拉斯哥大学,1992年)。塞缪尔·艾略特·莫里森(Samuel Eliot Morison)的两卷精辟地叙述了早期欧洲到新世界的航行:欧洲发现美洲:公元500-1600年的北部航行(纽约:牛津大学出版社,1971年)和欧洲发现美洲:公元1492-1616年的南部航行(纽约,牛津大学出版社1974年)。费利佩·费尔南德斯·阿姆斯托(Felipe Fernández Armesto)在《哥伦布:从地中海到大西洋的探索和殖民》(1229-1492)(伦敦:麦克米伦教育,1987年)之前对欧洲海外扩张的开端进行了论述。不可错过的是哥伦布自己对历史上最著名航程的逐日记录,重印为奥利弗·邓恩和詹姆斯·凯利,Jr.,1492-1493年克里斯托弗·哥伦布第一次美洲航行的日记(诺曼:俄克拉荷马大学出版社,1989年)

As an antidote to this book's mostly dispassionate account of how peoples conquered or slaughtered other peoples, read the classic account of the destruction of the Yahi tribelet of northern California and the emergence of Ishi, its solitary survivor: Theodora Kroeber, Ishi in Two Worlds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961). The disappearance of native languages in the Americas and elsewhere is the subject of Robert Robins and Eugenius Uhlenbeck, Endangered Languages (Providence: Berg, 1991), Joshua Fishman, Reversing Language Shift (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1991), and Michael Krauss, “The world's languages in crisis,” Language 68:4–10 (1992).

作为这本书对人们如何征服或屠杀其他民族的冷静描述的解药,阅读关于北加利福尼亚州Yahi部落的破坏和Ishi的出现的经典描述,Ishi是其唯一的幸存者:Theodora Kroeber,《两个世界中的Ishi》(伯克利:加利福尼亚大学出版社,1961年)。罗伯特·罗宾斯(Robert Robins)和尤金·乌伦贝克(Eugenius Uhlenbeck),《濒危语言》(普罗维登斯:伯格,1991年)、《逆转语言转变》(克利夫顿:多语言问题,1991年)和迈克尔·克劳斯(Michael Krauss),《处于危机中的世界语言》,语言68:4-10(1992年)

Chapter 19

Books on the archaeology, prehistory, and history of the African continent include Roland Oliver and Brian Fagan, Africa in the Iron Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), Roland Oliver and J. D. Fage, A Short History of Africa, 5th ed. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), J. D. Fage, A History of Africa (London: Hutchinson, 1978), Roland Oliver, The African Experience (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1991), Thurstan Shaw et al., eds., The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals, and Towns (New York: Routledge, 1993), and David Phillipson, African Archaeology, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Correlations between linguistic and archaeological evidence of Africa's past are summarized by Christopher Ehret and Merrick Posnansky, eds., The Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982). The role of disease is discussed by Gerald Hartwig and K. David Patterson, eds., Disease in African History (Durham: Duke University Press, 1978).

有关非洲大陆考古学、史前史和历史的书籍包括罗兰·奥利弗和布莱恩·法根,《铁器时代的非洲》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1975年),罗兰·奥立弗和J.D.法格,《非洲简史》,第五版(哈蒙德斯沃斯:企鹅,1975年),《非洲历史》(伦敦:哈钦森,1978年),罗兰德·奥利弗,《非洲经验》(伦敦:Weidenfeld和Nicolson,1991年),瑟斯坦·肖等人主编,《非洲考古学:食品、金属和城镇》(纽约:Routledge,1993年),戴维·菲利普森,《非洲考古》,第二版(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1993年)。克里斯托弗·埃雷特(Christopher Ehret)和梅里克·波斯南斯基(Merrick Posnasky)主编的《非洲历史的考古和语言重建》(伯克利:加利福尼亚大学出版社,1982年)总结了非洲历史的语言学和考古学证据之间的相关性。杰拉尔德·哈特维格(Gerald Hartwig)和K.戴维·帕特森(K.David Patterson)主编的《非洲历史上的疾病》(达勒姆:杜克大学出版社,1978年)讨论了疾病的作用。

As for food production, many of the listed further readings for Chapters 4–10 discuss Africa. Also of note are Christopher Ehret, “On the antiquity of agriculture in Ethiopia,” Journal of African History 20:161–77 (1979); J. Desmond Clark and Steven Brandt, eds., From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Art Hansen and Della McMillan, eds., Food in Sub-Saharan Africa (Boulder, Colo.: Rienner, 1986); Fred Wendorf et al., “Saharan exploitation of plants 8,000 years B.P.,” Nature 359:721–24 (1992); Andrew Smith, Pastoralism in Africa (London: Hurst, 1992); and Andrew Smith, “Origin and spread of pastoralism in Africa,” Annual Reviews of Anthropology 21:125–41 (1992).

至于食品生产,第4-10章列出的许多后续阅读资料都讨论了非洲。同样值得注意的是Christopher Ehret,“关于埃塞俄比亚农业的古代性”,《非洲历史杂志》20:161-77(1979);J、 Desmond Clark和Steven Brandt主编,《从猎人到农民:非洲粮食生产的原因和后果》(伯克利:加利福尼亚大学出版社,1984年);Art Hansen和Della McMillan主编,《撒哈拉以南非洲的食品》(科罗拉多州博尔德:里纳,1986年);Fred Wendorf et al.,“撒哈拉地区8000年来对植物的开发”,自然359:721-24(1992);安德鲁·史密斯,《非洲的畜牧业》(伦敦:赫斯特,1992年);安德鲁·史密斯,“非洲畜牧业的起源和传播”,《人类学年鉴》21:125-41(1992)

For information about Madagascar, two starting points are Robert Dewar and Henry Wright, “The culture history of Madagascar,” Journal of World Prehistory 7:417–66 (1993), and Pierre Verin, The History of Civilization in North Madagascar (Rotterdam: Balkema, 1986). A detailed study of the linguistic evidence about the source for the colonization of Madagascar is Otto Dahl, Migration from Kalimantan to Madagascar (Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1991). Possible musical evidence for Indonesian contact with East Africa is described by A. M. Jones, Africa and Indonesia: The Evidence of the Xylophone and Other Musical and Cultural Factors (Leiden: Brill, 1971). Important evidence about the early settlement of Madagascar comes from dated bones of now extinct animals as summarized by Robert Dewar, “Extinctions in Madagascar: The loss of the subfossil fauna,” pp. 574–93 in Paul Martin and Richard Klein, eds., Quaternary Extinctions (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1984). A tantalizing subsequent fossil discovery is reported by R. D. E. MacPhee and David Burney, “Dating of modified femora of extinct dwarf Hippopotamus from Southern Madagascar,” Journal of Archaeological Science 18:695–706 (1991). The onset of human colonization is assessed from paleobotanical evidence by David Burney, “Late Holocene vegetational change in Central Madagascar,” Quaternary Research 28:130–43 (1987).

关于马达加斯加的信息,有两个起点:Robert Dewar和Henry Wright,《马达加斯加的文化史》,《世界史前史杂志》7:417–66(1993年),以及Pierre Verin,《马达加斯加北部的文明史》(鹿特丹:Balkema,1986年)。关于马达加斯加殖民起源的语言证据的详细研究是Otto Dahl,《从加里曼丹到马达加斯加的移民》(奥斯陆:挪威大学出版社,1991年)。A.M.Jones,《非洲和印度尼西亚:木琴和其他音乐和文化因素的证据》(莱顿:Brill,1971)描述了印度尼西亚与东非接触的可能音乐证据。关于马达加斯加早期定居的重要证据来自于现已灭绝的动物的年代久远的骨骼,如Robert Dewar所总结,“马达加斯加的灭绝:亚化石动物群的丧失”,Paul Martin和Richard Klein主编,《第四纪灭绝》(图森:亚利桑那大学出版社,1984年)。R.D.E.MacPhee和David Burney报道了一个诱人的后续化石发现,“马达加斯加南部已灭绝矮河马的改良股骨的年代测定”,考古科学杂志18:695–706(1991)。David Burney,“马达加斯加中部晚全新世植被变化”,第四纪研究28:130–43(1987),根据古植物学证据评估了人类殖民化的开始。

Epilogue

Links between environmental degradation and the decline of civilization in Greece are explored by Tjeerd van Andel et al., “Five thousand years of land use and abuse in the southern Argolid,” Hesperia 55:103–28 (1986), Tjeerd van Andel and Curtis Runnels, Beyond the Acropolis: A Rural Greek Past (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987), and Curtis Runnels, “Environmental degradation in ancient Greece,” Scientific American 272(3): 72–75 (1995). Patricia Fall et al., “Fossil hyrax middens from the Middle East: A record of paleovegetation and human disturbance,” pp. 408–27 in Julio Betancourt et al., eds., Packrat Middens (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), does the same for the decline of Petra, as does Robert Adams, Heartland of Cities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), for Mesopotamia.

环境退化与希腊文明衰落之间的联系由Tjeerd van Andel等人、《南阿戈利德五千年的土地使用和滥用》,《Hesperia 55:103–28》(1986)、《雅典卫城之外的Tjeerrd van Andrel和Curtis Runnels:希腊农村的过去》(斯坦福:斯坦福大学出版社,1987年)和《柯蒂斯Runnels,希腊乡村的历史》进行了探讨,“古希腊的环境退化”,《科学美国人》272(3):72-75(1995)。Patricia Fall等人,“中东的海兔化石:古植被和人类干扰的记录”,Julio Betancourt等人编辑的《Packrat middens》(图森:亚利桑那大学出版社,1990年)第408-27页,对佩特拉的衰落也有同样的影响,正如罗伯特·亚当斯(Robert Adams)《城市中心地带》(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1981年)对美索不达米亚的影响一样。

A stimulating interpretation of the differences between the histories of China, India, Islam, and Europe is provided by E. L. Jones, The European Miracle, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Louise Levathes, When China Ruled the Seas (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994), describes the power struggle that led to the suspension of China's treasure fleets. The further readings for Chapters 16 and 17 provide other references for early Chinese history.

E.L.Jones,《欧洲奇迹》第二版(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1987年)对中国、印度、伊斯兰教和欧洲历史之间的差异提供了一个令人振奋的解释。路易丝·莱瓦西斯(Louise Levathes)在《中国统治海洋》(纽约:Simon and Schuster,1994)中描述了导致中国珍宝船队停驶的权力斗争。第16章和第17章的进一步阅读为中国早期历史提供了其他参考。

The impact of Central Asian nomadic pastoralists on Eurasia's complex civilizations of settled farmers is discussed by Bennett Bronson, “The role of barbarians in the fall of states,” pp. 196–218 in Norman Yoffee and George Cowgill, eds., The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988).

班尼特·布朗森在《野蛮人在国家沦陷中的作用》一书中讨论了中亚游牧牧民对欧亚大陆定居农民复杂文明的影响,诺曼·约菲和乔治·考吉尔主编,《古代国家和文明的崩溃》(图森:亚利桑那大学出版社,1988年)

The possible relevance of chaos theory to history is discussed by Michael Shermer in the paper “Exorcising Laplace's demon: Chaos and antichaos, history and metahistory,” History and Theory 34:59–83 (1995). Shermer's paper also provides a bibliography for the triumph of the QWERTY keyboard, as does Everett Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 3rd ed. (New York: Free Press, 1983).

迈克尔·谢尔默在《驱除拉普拉斯的恶魔:混沌与反混沌、历史与元历史》一文中讨论了混沌理论与历史的可能相关性,《历史与理论》34:59–83(1995)。谢默的论文还为QWERTY键盘的成功提供了参考书目,埃弗雷特·罗杰斯也是如此,《创新的传播》,第三版(纽约:自由出版社,1983年)

An eyewitness account of the traffic accident that nearly killed Hitler in 1930 will be found in the memoirs of Otto Wagener, a passenger in Hitler's car. Those memoirs have been edited by Henry Turner, Jr., as a book, Hitler: Memoirs of a Confidant (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978). Turner goes on to speculate on what might have happened if Hitler had died in 1930, in his chapter “Hitler's impact on history,” in David Wetzel, ed., German History: Ideas, Institutions, and Individuals (New York: Praeger, 1996).

1930年希特勒差点丧命的交通事故的目击者描述将在希特勒车上乘客奥托·瓦格纳的回忆录中找到。这些回忆录由小亨利·特纳编辑成《希特勒:知己回忆录》(纽黑文:耶鲁大学出版社,1978年)。特纳在大卫·韦策尔主编的《德国历史:思想、制度和个人》(纽约:普雷格,1996)中的“希特勒对历史的影响”一章中,继续推测如果希特勒在1930年去世可能会发生什么。

The many distinguished books by historians interested in problems of long-term history include Sidney Hook, The Hero in History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1943), Patrick Gardiner, ed., Theories of History (New York: Free Press, 1959), Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), Fernand Braudel, On History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), Peter Novick, That Noble Dream (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), and Henry Hobhouse, Forces of Change (London: Sedgewick and Jackson, 1989).

对长期历史问题感兴趣的历史学家的许多杰出著作包括西德尼·胡克(Sidney Hook),《历史英雄》(波士顿:灯塔出版社,1943年)、《历史理论》(纽约:自由出版社,1959年)、《文明与资本主义》(纽约:哈珀和罗,1979年)、《费尔南多·布劳德尔,论历史》(芝加哥:芝加哥大学出版社,1980年)、《彼得·诺维克(Peter Novick)》,《崇高的梦想》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1988年)和亨利·霍布豪斯《变革的力量》(伦敦:塞吉威克和杰克逊,1989年)

Several writings by the biologist Ernst Mayr discuss the differences between historical and nonhistorical sciences, with particular reference to the contrast between biology and physics, but much of what Mayr says is also applicable to human history. His views will be found in his Evolution and the Diversity of Life (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976), chap. 25, and in Towards a New Philosophy of Biology (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), chaps. 1–2.

生物学家恩斯特·迈尔(Ernst Mayr)的几篇著作讨论了历史科学和非历史科学之间的差异,特别提到了生物学和物理学之间的对比,但迈尔所说的许多内容也适用于人类历史。他的观点可以在他的《进化与生命的多样性》(剑桥:哈佛大学出版社,1976年)第25章和《走向新的生物学哲学》(剑桥:哈弗大学出版社,1988年)第26章中找到。1–2.

The methods by which epidemiologists reach cause-and-effect conclusions about human diseases, without resorting to laboratory experiments on people, are discussed in standard epidemiology texts, such as A. M. Lilienfeld and D. E. Lilienfeld, Foundations of Epidemiology, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). Uses of natural experiments are considered from the viewpoint of an ecologist in my chapter “Overview: Laboratory experiments, field experiments, and natural experiments,” pp. 3–22 in Jared Diamond and Ted Case, eds., Community Ecology (New York: Harper and Row; 1986). Paul Harvey and Mark Pagel, The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), analyzes how to extract conclusions by comparing species.

流行病学家在不借助于人体实验室实验的情况下得出人类疾病因果结论的方法,在标准流行病学文本中进行了讨论,如A.M.Lilienfeld和D.E.Lilienbeld,《流行病学基础》,第三版(纽约:牛津大学出版社,1994年)。在我的“概述:实验室实验、实地实验和自然实验”一章中,从生态学家的角度考虑了自然实验的使用,第3-22页,Jared Diamond和Ted Case主编,《社区生态学》(纽约:Harper and Row;1986)。保罗·哈维和马克·佩格尔,《进化生物学中的比较方法》(牛津:牛津大学出版社,1991年)分析了如何通过比较物种得出结论。

2003 Afterword

Two articles and one book summarize discoveries of the last half-dozen years about domestication of plants and animals, spreads of language families, and the relation of the spreads of language families to food production: Jared Diamond, “Evolution, consequences and the future of plant and animal domestication,” Nature 418:34–41 (2002); Jared Diamond and Peter Bellwood, “The first agricultural expansions: archaeology, languages, and people,” Science, in press; and Peter Bellwood and Colin Renfrew, Examining the Language/Farming Dispersal Hypothesis (Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2002). Those two articles and that book give references to the detailed recent literature. A recent book-length account of the role of agricultural expansion in the origins of the modern Japanese people is Mark Hudson's Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999).

两篇文章和一本书总结了过去六年关于植物和动物驯化、语系传播以及语系传播与粮食生产的关系的发现:贾里德·戴蒙德,“植物和动物的驯化的进化、后果和未来”,《自然》418:34-41(2002);Jared Diamond和Peter Bellwood,“第一次农业扩张:考古学、语言和人”,科学出版社;Peter Bellwood和Colin Renfrew,研究语言/农业传播假说(剑桥:麦当劳考古研究所,2002年)。这两篇文章和那本书引用了详细的近期文献。马克·哈德逊(Mark Hudson)的《身份的废墟:日本岛屿上的民族起源》(檀香山:夏威夷大学出版社,1999年)是一本关于农业扩张在现代日本人起源中的作用的新书。

For a detailed account of New Zealand's Musket Wars, see the book by R.D. Crosby, The Musket Wars: a History of Inter-Iwi Conflict 1806–45 (Auckland: Reed, 1999). Those wars are summarized much more briefly but placed in a larger context in two books by James Belich: The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict (Auckland: Penguin, 1986) and Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders (Auckland: Penguin, 1996).

有关新西兰步枪战争的详细描述,请参阅R.D.克罗斯比的书《步枪战争:1806-45年国际捕鲸组织内部冲突的历史》(奥克兰:里德,1999)。詹姆斯·贝里奇(James Belich)《新西兰战争和维多利亚时代对种族冲突的解释》(奥克兰:企鹅,1986年)和《创造民族:新西兰人的历史》(奥克兰:Penguin,1996年)的两本书对这些战争进行了更简短的总结,但将其置于更大的背景下。

Two recent efforts by social scientists to identify proximate causes behind Europe's and China's divergence include an article by Jack Goldstone, “Efflorescences and economic growth in world history: rethinking the ‘rise of the West' and the Industrial Revolution,” Journal of World History 13:323–89 (2002), and a book by Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000). The opposite approach, the search for ultimate causes, is exemplified by a recent article by Graeme Lang, “State systems and the origins of modern science: a comparison of Europe and China,” East-West Dialog 2:16–30 (1997), and by a book by David Cosandey, Le Secret de I'Occident (Paris: Arléa, 1997). Those articles by Goldstone and by Lang are the sources of my quotations above.

社会科学家最近为确定欧洲和中国分歧背后的直接原因所做的两项努力包括杰克·戈德斯通的一篇文章《世界历史上的风霜和经济增长:反思'西方崛起'和工业革命》,《世界历史杂志》13:323-89(2002年),以及肯尼斯·波美兰兹的一本书《大分歧:中国、欧洲、,《现代世界经济的形成》(普林斯顿:普林斯顿大学出版社,2000年)。格雷姆·朗(Graeme Lang)最近的一篇文章《国家体系与现代科学的起源:欧洲与中国的比较》,《东西方对话2:16-30》(1997年),以及大卫·科桑迪(David Cosandey)的《西方秘密》(巴黎:阿尔埃亚,1997年)的一本书,都体现了相反的方法,即寻找终极原因。戈德斯通和朗的文章是我以上引文的来源。

The two papers analyzing the connection between economic indicators of modern wealth or growth rate, on the one hand, and long history of state societies or agriculture, on the other hand, are: Ola Olsson and Douglas Hibbs, “Biogeography and long-term economic development,” in press in European Economic Review; and Valerie Bockstette, Areendam Chanda, and Louis Putterman, “States and markets: the advantage of an early start,” Journal of Economic Growth 7:351–73 (2002).

分析现代财富或增长率的经济指标与国家社会或农业的长期历史之间关系的两篇论文是:Ola Olsson和Douglas Hibbs,《生物地理学与长期经济发展》,发表于《欧洲经济评论》(European economic Review);Valerie Bockstette、Areendam Chanda和Louis Putterman,“国家和市场:早期启动的优势”,经济增长杂志7:351-73(2002)